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University  of  California. 


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Class 


ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL 
AGRICULTURE 

A   TEACHER'S   MANUAL 
TO   ACCOMPANY   HILGA^D  AND   OSTERHOUTS 
["AGRICULTURE  FOR  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE' 

BY 
ERNEST   B.  BABCOCK 

AND 

CYRIL   A.    STEBBINS 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1911 

AU  rights  reserved 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO 
SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON    •    BOMBAY   •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL 
AGRICULTURE 

A  TEACHER'S  MANUAL 

TO   ACCOMPANY  HILGARD  AND   OSTERHOUT'S 

*'  AGRICULTURE  FOR  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE ' 

BY 
ERNEST   B.  BABCOCK 

AND 

CYRIL   A.    STEBBINS 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1911 

AU  rights  reserved 


1^3 


Copyright,  1911, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 

Set  up  and  electrotypcd.    Published  July,  1911. 


Norbiaot)  ^rrs0 

J.  8.  Cushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 


214570 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

Microsoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/elementaryschoolOObabcrich 


INTRODUCTION 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  little  manual  to  help  the  ambitious  teacher, 
who  is  not  afraid  of  work,  to  begin  the  teaching  of  Agriculture. 
The  writers  believe  that  agriculture  should  be  introduced  in  all 
elementary  schools,  but  in  making  this  statement  it  seems  necessary 
to  explain  briefly  what  we  mean  by  Elementary  School  Agriculture 
and  how  we  think  it  should  be  introduced. 

Agriculture,  in  the  mind  of  the  careless  thinker,  is  sometimes 
synonymous  with  farming.  Now  farming  is  a  noble  and,  fortunately, 
an  increasingly  attractive  occupation,  but  the  term  Agriculture  has 
a  vastly  bigger  content  than  the  term  farming.  Agriculture  is  both 
a  science  and  an  art.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  great  composite  of  the  funda- 
mental sciences  and,  during  the  progress  of  civilization,  has  come 
to  include  a  long  list  of  elementary  arts  and  technical  industries. 
Even  in  the  high  school  we  find  only  a  few  of  the  fundamental  sciences 
that  go  to  make  up  the  great  science  of  Agriculture  and  fewer  still 
of  the  elementary  arts.  Far  be  it  from  the  elementary  school  to 
teach  science  as  such.  There  is  less  danger  of  this  than  ever  before. 
The  mission  of  nature  study  has  been  fulfilled  in  part.  It  is  now 
generally  believed  that  natural  history  as  a  school  subject  can  be 
made  a  powerful  educative  agent.  On  the  other  hand,  the  manual 
arts  employed  in  Agriculture  comprise  a  most  valuable  sort  of 
practical  training  for  the  young. 

"  Agriculture  on  its  practical  side  contains  a  large  fund  of  material 
well  adapted  for  teaching  purposes  to  those  untrained  in  the  sciences 
underlying  its  various  operations.  Right  modes  of  planting  may 
be  taught  without  much  reference  to  why  some  seeds  are  placed 
deeper  than  others.  Good  tillage  can  be  taught,  even  though  the 
laws  of  capillarity,  soil  temperature,  and  the  like  are  not  understood. 
Legumes  may  be  grown  and  plowed  under  and  other  modes  of  soil 
enrichment  may  be  practiced  without  much  knowledge  of  bacteria 
B  1 


2  INTRODUCTION 

or  of  the  chemistry  of  fertilizers  or  of  plant  physiology.  Seed 
selection  maybe  carried  on  quite  extensively  with  little  or  no  knowl- 
edge of  the  laws  of  heredity.  Feeding  one  ration  to  obtain  milk 
and  another  to  produce  flesh  need  not  involve  much  knowledge  of 
the  physiology  of  assimilation  or  of  the  chemistry  of  digestion. 
Spraying  for  insects  and  fungi  as  a  protective  measure  need  not  im- 
ply an  extensive  knowledge  of  entomology  or  cryptogamic  botany. 
Grafting,  budding,  and  other  forms  of  propagation  need  not  rest  on 
a  very  broad  knowledge  of  plant  anatomy  and  physiology. 

"  Learning  to  do  the  things  in  the  foregoing  summary  has  some 
very  decided  educational  values.  One  of  its  values  lies  in  the  fact 
that  it  stores  the  mind  with  a  fund  of  experimental  knowledge. 
This  makes  it  vital  to  one^s  thinking.  It  is  also  valuable  as  a  stimu- 
lant to  the  inquisitive  mind  looking  for  the  real  reasons  why  things 
transpire  as  they  do.  It  is  further  valuable  as  affording  a  reservoir 
of  material  for  example  or  illustration  to  one  in  pursuit  of  a  law  or 
principle  in  the  natural  world. '^  ^ 

Now,  if  learning  to  do  these  things  —  the  mastery  of  the  elemental 
arts  of  agriculture  —  is  valuable  in  itself,  how  much  more  valuable 
must  such  practical  training  become  if  it  is  preceded  or  accompanied 
by  proper  instruction  regarding  those  natural  phenomena  and  laws 
upon  which  such  practice  actually  depends  !  This  is  one  function 
of  nature-study.  Even  in  the  primary  grades  pupils  may  extend 
their  acquaintance  with  natural  objects  and  phenomena  in  such 
a  way  that  when  they  come  to  agriculture  as  a  grammar  school 
subject  they  will  have  a  background  of  experience  which  is  such  an 
advantage  to  any  one  who  studies  this  subject.  For  this  reason 
we  urge  the  strengthening  of  nature-study,  including  gardening  in 
the  primary  grades  as  a  preliminary  step,  if  possible,  to  the  intro- 
duction of  agriculture  in  the  grammar  grades.^ 

But  many  communities  desire  that  Agriculture  be  introduced 

* "  The  Place  and  Function  of  Agriculture  in  the  Curriculum,"  W.  R.  Hart, 
Nature  Study  Review,  vol.  5,  no.  6,  Sept.  1909,  p.  163. 

'See  "  General  Plan  for  Organization  of  the  Nature  or '  Science '  Teaching 
in  Elementary  Schools,"  E.  B.  Babcock,  Sierra  Educational  Newg,  Vol,  VI, 
no.  1,  pp.  49,  50. 


INTRODUCTION  3 

into  the  grammar  grades  immediately  and  many  county  boards 
of  education  are  sanctioning  such  a  step  by  the  recognition  of  some 
particular  textbook  on  Agriculture.  In  districts  where  the  step 
is  taken  without  previous  warning,  grammar  grade  teachers  find 
themselves  confronted  by  difficult  problems.  The  question  arises 
at  once,  How  shall  I  begin?  It  is  certain  that  to  begin  with  the 
mere  reading  of  a  text,  no  matter  how  excellent,  will  not  provide 
the  practice  work  —  the  doing  element  —  which  is  so  desirable. 
The  vitality  of  agriculture  in  the  common  school  will  be  found  in 
the  school  garden  and  in  the  class  room  experiments.  The  skillful 
teacher  will  continually  stimulate  the  activities  of  the  pupils  in  the 
direction  of  original  experimentation,  bringing  them  to  meet  problem 
after  problem.  The  common  measure  of  man^s  power  is  his  ability 
to  handle  new  situations.  The  pupil  who  has  answered  by  him- 
self a  problem  question  in  a  satisfactory  manner  has  added  much 
toward  character  building.  Many  such  experiences  give  the  power 
which  is  necessary  to  make  one  a  force  in  one^s  community. 

Another  means  for  awakening  interest  in  boys  and  girls  is  the 
organization  of  school  agriculture  or  gardening  clubs.  This  may 
be  either  a  local  affair  or  affiliation  may  be  arranged  with  a  general 
movement  such  as  the  Junior  Gardening  Clubs  now  being  organized 
by  the  College  of  Agriculture  at  Berkeley.  Information  regarding 
this  movement  will  be  sent  upon  application. 

The  success  of  all  these  activities  in  public  school  Agriculture 
depends  largely  upon  the  enthusiasm  and  resourcefulness  of  the 
teacher.  But,  in  the  beginning  of  new  work,  definite  suggestions 
are  often  invaluable.  It  is  the  aim  of  this  manual  to  give  such 
suggestions,  first,  for  the  school  garden,  second,  for  schoolroom 
experiments  supposed  to  lead  up  to  and  accompany  the  garden  and 
the  textbook  work. 

Notebooks  are  helpful  in  the  higher  grades  if  they  are  used  as 
means  to  an  end  and  do  not  become  notebooks  for  the  sake  of  note- 
books. A  notebook  is  potential,  just  as  is  a  textbook,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  squeezing  the  vitality  out  of  a  teacher  and  out  of  the  pupil 
and  out  of  the  subject.  The  common  measure  for  a  teacher  is  his 
perspective,  the  depth  of  his  point  of  view.    Too  often  the  school 


4  INTRODUCTION 

exists  for  the  schoors  sake,  the  course  of  study  is  compiled  for  the 
sake  of  the  course  of  study,  and  the  pupil  is  marched  through  it 
rather  than  the  course  of  study  marched  through  the  pupil.  The 
teacher  too  often  teaches  the  child  for  its  own  sake  rather  than  for 
the  sake  of  the  child's  usefulness  to  its  neighbors  and  the  world. 
Further,  he  is  liable  to  see  in  this  new  call  for  Agriculture  nothing 
but  Agriculture,  and  not  its  value  as  a  means  to  an  end,  the  end  being, 
(1)  to  create  a  sympathy  for  farming,  for  country  life;  (2)  to  read- 
just the  individual  to  his  community  living ;  (3)  to  give  new  direc- 
tion to  the  old  subjects  in  the  curriculum. 

Therefore,  let  us  make  elementary  school  agriculture  stand  for 
something  more  than  manual  art,  something  more  than  nature- 
study.  Let  us  use  it  as  a  means  for  adjustment  to  the  needs  of  a 
progressive  civilization,  in  which  true  culture  is  not  considered  as 
a  vague  ideal,  but  an  intelligence  that  expresses  itself  in  real  service 
to  humanity. 

School  Gardens 

Children,  inclosed  by  the  walls  of  the  schoolroom  and  imprisoned 
in  spaces  bounded  by  the  desks,  are  much  like  fish  in  a  glass  bowl. 
The  space  in  the  case  of  the  fish  admits  of  limited  movements  and 
unnatural  living.  The  necessary  amount  of  oxygen  and  nutriment 
derived  from  the  vigorous  natural  living  and  the  activity  caused  by 
life  bubbling  over  is  denied  the  captive.  Individual  retrogression, 
followed  by  fungus  diseases  and  death,  is  the  usual  result  for  the  fish. 
To  the  boys  and  girls  the  desks  admit  of  slight  stretching  and  an 
aggravating  amount  of  twisting  and  turning,  as  any  teacher  will 
testify.  This  is  a  poor  substitute  indeed  for  that  which  the  system 
demands.      In  twists  and  turns  Nature  rebels  against  inactivity. 

The  present  school  life  needs  something  too  large  or  too  active 
to  be  brought  into  the  schoolroom,  something  which  will  make  the 
boys  and  girls  immune  from  the  attacks  of  the  schoolroom  fungus 
which  fills  them  with  the  mycelium  of  dislike  for  the  school,  which 
makes  books  and  desks  their  memory  focus,  and  which  finally  drives 
them  from  the  influence  of  the  school.  While  window  boxes  and 
aquaria  have  their  reasons  for  being,  we  are  glad  that  teachers  can 


INTRODUCTION  5 

bring  neither  school  gardens  nor  creeks  into  the  schoolroom.  We 
sometimes  forget  that  the  schoolhouse  with  its  apparatus  is  made 
for  the  children,  not  the  children  for  the  schoolhouse. 

The  baby  with  its  amazing  contortions  and  physical  reactions 
demonstrates  beyond  a  doubt  the  rapid  development  of  the  motor 
centers  as  compared  with  the  sense  centers.  The  school  should 
offer  something  more  than  recesses  to  meet  this  fact,  particularly 
in  the  lower  grades.  The  flow  of  motor  impulses  can  only  be  checked 
for  a  short  time,  so  it  necessitates  direction  of,  rather  than  attempts 
for  suppression  of,  these  impulses.  Rather  than  to  try  to  suppress 
the  physical  bubbling  over  expressed  in  running,  etc.,  let  us  direct 
the  run,  the  jump,  and  the  kick. 

School  gardens  offer  the  easiest  solution  of  the  problem  of  direc- 
tion since  they  use  and  use  well  the  surplus  energy.  To  observe 
a  hundred  children  at  work  in  the  gardens,  spading,  hoeing,  raking, 
from  the  viewpoint  of  the  enormous  amount  of  energy  expended, 
one  stands  fully  convinced  of  the  unnaturalness  of  long  study  and 
recitation  periods,  and  realizes  the  responsibility  of  teachers  in  direct- 
ing and  controlling  the  energy.  They  need  assistance  from  the 
course  of  study.  For  a  short  time  skillful  teachers  may  keep  ener- 
getic classes  inactive  yet  full  of  attention,  but  gradually  the  flow 
of  bodily  energy,  dammed  up  as  it  were,  trickles  out  in  mischief.  It 
is  not  strange  that  after  Nature  has  been  giving  satisfaction  to  the 
motor  impulses  of  the  children  in  the  gardens,  they  go  back  to  the 
schoolroom  reluctantly  yet  physiologically  better  prepared  for  inside 
work. 

Does  not  the  problem  of  discipline  resolve  itself  into  a  problem 
of  proper  oxidation  and  the  direction  of  the  resultant  energy?  A 
bad  boy  is  the  result  of  misdirected  energy.  Something  blighted 
his  natural  development.  Fasten  his  energies  to  a  spade  and  the 
"  badness  ^^  seems  to  dispel  itself  in  the  ground.  Can  we  not  use 
the  hint  given  us  by  this  experience  with  many  misunderstood 
boys? 

In  a  course  of  nature-study,  the  gardens  furnish  the  center  from 
which  radiate  many  and  various  interests  inorganic  and  organic 
in  nature. 


6 


INTRODUCTION 


Continuity,  not  isolation  of  subject  matter,  is  essential.  The 
potency  of  the  school  garden  as  a  unifying  element  in  the  school 
work  is  very  great  and  is  illustrated  by  the  diagram.  Children  in 
the  garden  see  insects,  other  animals,  and  the  effects  of  various  natu- 
ral forces,  and  are  thus  naturally  introduced  into  new  fields.  Not 
only  are  these  factors  now  closely  related  to  the  lives  of  the  children, 
but  the  school  itself  may  be  linked  to  life.     The  old  subjects  in  the 

wrn^  m  Rii;t=ATii©Nj 

T  o  — 


^^HQQi  SOB^tC*^^ 


Fig.  1. 


curriculum  may  be  given  new  direction.    The  criticism  on  the  pres- 
ent school  system  should  not  rest  so  much  upon  the  subjects  taught 


INTRODUCTION  7 

as  upon  the  direction  of  these  subj  ects.  With  gardens  under  way  the 
problem  in  arithmetic  may  be  one  grown  out  of  the  children's  ac- 
tivities in  the  garden,  instead  of  one  devised  by  the  teacher  and  one 
far  removed  from  the  children's  interests.  This  illustration  (Fig.  1) 
will  suffice  to  point  out  one  large  aim  of  the  school  garden  —  to 
readjust  school  work  to  life  work. 

The  garden  carries  a  world  with  it,  patterned  after  the  universe. 
It  is  potential  in  the  direction  of  an  embryo  conununity  in  which 
the  children  are  brought  in  contact  with  those  factors  and  those 
forces  which  make  for  real  community  life.  The  life  of  the  present 
generation  is  growing  so  very  complex  that  it  demands  of  the  coming 
generation  high  specialization  in  many  lines.  Specialization  caused 
by  competition  tends  to  emphasize  economic  life.  The  school 
garden  will  flourish,  if  for  no  other  reason,  so  long  as  the  world 
kneels  to  money,  for  the  proper  handling  of  soil  and  seeds  which 
represent  the  stored  energy  of  Nature,  the  control  of  insect  pests, 
the  prevention  of  fungous  diseases,  all  culminate  in  the  perfect  fruit, 
a  product  of  man's  energy,  both  mental  and  physical,  standing  for 
dollars  and  cents. 

More  and  more  are  we  brought  to  see  that  the  present  complex 
life  calls  for  the  individual  with  a  broad  social  perspective.  The 
gardens  offer  opportunities  in  forming  correct  social  views  and  habits 
early  in  life.  In  modern  schools  many  children,  many  individual 
gardens,  community  gardens,  public  paths,  public  tools,  public 
water,  and  many  other  relations  both  public  and  private,  make  a 
social  life  no  less  complex  and  difficult  to  handle  than  that  of 
a  city.  Early  in  their  garden  life,  the  children  are  taught  to  respect 
those  things  which  belong  to  their  neighbors ;  to  realize  that  com- 
munity property  belongs  to  the  whole  not  to  a  part,  and  that  each 
must  offer  his  support ;  to  understand  that  the  policy  which  is  best 
for  the  majority  must  be  supported;  to  see  the  justice  in  ten  of 
a  class  insisting  that  the  eleventh  remove  objectionable  weeds  from 
his  garden,  or  the  justice  of  eminent  domain;  to  feel,  in  general, 
that  each  represents  but  one  small  part  of  a  great  whole  and  that 
each  must  do  his  best  to  fit  in  smoothly  and  laugh  with  the  world 
rather  than  to  be  shoved  aside  to  cry  alone. 


8  INTRODUCTION 

Habits  of  care  formed  through  continual  attention  to  clean  tools, 
etc.,  will  lessen  the  friction  of  the  children's  lives. 

Continual  attention  to  seeding,  growing,  spraying,  harvesting, 
will  prevent  some  of  the  waste  characteristic  to  California. 

The  complexity  of  our  national  life  is  brought  about  by  man's 
power  to  absorb  and  interpret  his  experiences  and  by  his  ability  to 
apply  these  experiences  in  his  own  conduct.  By  means  of  school 
gardens  pupils  gain  experiences  which  help  them  to  interpret  natu- 
ral forces  and  which  develop  the  power  to  apply  these  forces  in 
their  own  conduct. 

From  the  viewpoint  of  pleasure  alone  the  school  garden  has  its 
reason  for  being.  If  red  cheeks,  bright  eyes,  abounding  joy  and 
interest  are  indicative,  the  garden  work  is  worth  while  as  a  pleasure- 
giver.  Many  a  tired,  patient  housewife  has  drawn  from  her  little 
garden  in  the  backyard  comfort  and  rest,  and  has  been  rejuvenated 
thereby.  The  soil  and  plant  life  are  ever  suggestive  of  vitality, 
courage,  and  peace.  But  there  are  too  few  home  gardens  and  too 
many  empty  cans  in  the  backyard.  Shall  we  not  inoculate  the  boys 
and  girls  with  the  garden  spirit  which  makes  for  vigorous  manhood 
and  womanhood  and  which  is  so  potential  for  joy? 

While  it  is  to  be  lamented,  it  is  none  the  less  true,  that  for  many 
years  "  farmer,"  in  the  public  mind,  has  stood  for  an  uneducated, 
ungainly,  uninteresting  human  being  clad  in  overalls,  an  unattractive 
future  to  any  boy,  influenced  by  a  biased  people.  We  want  the 
school  gardens  to  get  a  chance  at  the  boys  and  girls  before  a  prej- 
udiced influence  reaches  them.  We  want  them  to  see  that  the 
schools,  the  universities,  and  the  world  are  getting  behind  the 
farmer;  to  feel  that  it  is  an  honor,  rather  than  a.  disgrace,  to  be 
a  countryman ;  to  see  that  the  world  has  demanded  farmers  with 
the  same  breath  that  it  has  ridiculed  them ;  all  to  create  a  sentiment, 
productive  in  sympathy  for  farmers  and  farm  life. 

The  Garden  Plot 

Select  a  well  drained  sunny  plot  which  can  be  easily  fenced  if 
necessary.  If  possible,  lay  out  the  plot  with  a  wind  break  on  the 
north. 


INTRODUCTION 


9 


Size  of  Plot.  —  Determine  the  size  of  the  plot  by  (1)  the  number 
of  pupils  to  undertake  the  work,  (2)  the  size  of  the  individual  gar- 
dens, (3)  the  amount  of  energy  to  be  expended. 

We  believe  in  school  gardens  for  all  classes.  However,  it  is  best  to 
start  in  a  limited  way  with  one  or  two  grades.  The  fifth  and  sixth 
grades  take  up  the  study  very  readily. 

Individual  gardens  3X5  feet  for  the  low  classes  and  6X8  feet  for 
the  high  grades  make  convenient  sizes.  Give  each  pupil  an  individual 
plot  and  select  one  for  yourself,  for  you  need  a  garden.  Arrange  for 
an  experimental  garden  and  a  community  plot  for  each  grade  or 
group.     Each  group  should  have  an  experiment  under  way. 

The  Plan.  —  With  data  in  hand  assist  the  children  to  plan  and 
make  a  drawing  of  the  gardens.  Bear  in  mind  ease  of  access  to  each 
garden  from  three  sides,  as  well  as  the  general  appearance  of  the 
garden  as  a  whole . 
Assign  the  gar- 
dens, marking 
each  garden  on 
the  plan.  A 
model  plan  is 
shown  in  the  ac- 
companying dia- 
gram. 

Preparation  of 
Plots. —  If  the 
plot  is  of;  consid- 
erable size,  have 
it  plowed  and 
harrowed ;  other- 
wise have  the 
children  spade 
the  plot.      Do 

not  kill  the  interest  with  too  much  drudgery.  We  observed  three 
boys  working  up  an  acre  of  ground  with  a  hand  plow.  It  was  fun 
the  first  day,  work  the  next,  drudgery  the  next,  and  the  final 
result  was  loss  of  interest.    The  plot  was  never  seeded. 


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10  INTRODUCTION 

Laying  out  of  Garden.  —  Ask  the  children  to  bring  tools  to  the 
school.  Have  the  boys  make  stakes,  three  to  each  pupil,  fourteen 
inches  long,  IJ  X  li  inches,  sharpened  at  one  end.  These  should 
be  painted  white.  With  a  tape  measure,  yard  sticks,  stones  or  mal- 
lets, two  or  three  balls  of  string,  and  a  plan,  you  are  ready  to  lay  out 
the  gardens.  Half  a  dozen  boys  with  work  planned  for  each  can 
lay  out  a  plot  a  half  acre  in  size  in  one  hour  by  using  the  following 
method.  Let  two  boys  measure  and  mark  off  the  four  corners. 
Direct  one  boy  to  follow  carrying  stakes,  another  accompanying 
him  to  drive  the  same.  Have  one  boy  carry  string.  Have  the 
string  stretched  around  the  four  corner  stakes.  Let  boys  with  yard 
sticks  measure  off  distances  according  to  the  plan  and  mark  the 
places  for  stakes  on  two  sides.  Caution  the  boys  to  see  that  the 
stakes  are  always  driven  on  the  same  side  of  the  string.  Let  boys 
with  mallets  and  stakes  follow,  driving  the  stakes  carefully  in  their 
proper  places.  With  the  stakes  driven  on  opposite  sides  direct  others 
to  stretch  string  across  connecting  the  corresponding  stakes.  The 
string  need  not  be  broken  at  each  stake.  It  may  be  merely  wound 
and  carried  on  to  the  next  stake.  With  stakes  driven  at  their  re- 
spective distances  at  the  two  remaining  sides,  treat  as  above  with  the 
string.  The  garden  now  has  the  appearance  of  a  great  cobweb  with 
the  string  crossing  in  such  a  way  as  to  outline  each  garden.  The 
whole  class  may  now  be  used  to  drive  stakes  at  each  intersection 
of  the  string.  Use  great  care  to  have  the  stakes  driven  perpendic- 
ularly and  on  the  correct  side  of  the  string.  With  the  stakes  in 
place  unwind  the  string.  Do  not  let  the  string  remain.  It  stretches 
and  is  easily  broken.  Instruct  the  children  to  level  the  paths  and 
to  lower  them  two  inches.  Thus  the  plots  are  slightly  raised,  giving 
an  attractive  appearance  to  the  gardens  and  making  drainage  more 
ideal. 

If  possible  let  the  children  begin  at  once  to  spade  up  the  soil. 
With  the  soil  carefully  cultivated  the  gardens  are  ready  for  seed- 
ing. Teach  the  children  the  '^  trench  '^  method  in  spading.  Dem- 
onstrate in  your  own  garden  at  the  proper  time  (1)  how  to 
spade,  (2)  how  to  fine  the  seed  bed,  (3)  how  to  plant  seeds,  (4)  how 
to  cultivate,  (5)  how  to  thin  out.     For  detailed  suggestions  on  these 


INTRODUCTION  11 

points  consult  Bailey ^s   "  Manual  of   Gardening,"   HalFs   "  The 
Garden  Yard  "  or  other  practical  treatises.     See  Appendix  C. 

Select  seeds  that  are  quick  hardy  growers,  —  radishes,  lettuce, 
peas,  beets,  etc.,  particularly  if  the  planting  season  is  at  hand  and 
short  as  to  growing  time.  Community  plots  may  be  devoted  to 
mass  flower  effect,  to  miniature  parks,  to  economic  plants,  etc. 

A  teacher  while  proudly  showing  visitors  the  school  gardens  well 
under  way  was  asked  what  was  to  be  done  with  the  productions. 
She  did  not  know.  Do  not  start  the  gardens  unless  a  definite  aim 
is  in  view.  The  products  may  be  used  as  follows ;  (1)  to  market  the 
vegetables  and  flowers,  (2)  for  home  use,  (3)  for  seed,  (4)  for  vege- 
table dinners,  (5)  for  the  school  lunch  table,  (6)  for  flower  and 
vegetable  shows,  (7)  for  a  Thanksgiving  gift  to  the  needy  in  the 
vicinity. 

Start  economic  plants  such  as  sugar  beets,  flax,  wheat,  castor 
beans,  pop  corn,  etc.  These  crops  may  be  harvested  in  the  fall  term. 
They  not  only  point  to  the  work  of  the  world,  but  the  children  do 
some  of  the  work.  It  is  a  short  step  from  the  fiber  in  the  flax  plant 
to  the  world^s  method  in  clothing  its  people. 

To  harvest  the  sugar  beets,  take  up  the  beets,  cut  off  the  tops 
about  one  inch  below  the  leaves,  and  shred  the  roots  with  graters. 
Put  this  shredded  material  into  a  clean  cloth  bag  and  press  out  the 
juice.  To  prevent  fermentation  and  for  purposes  of  purification, 
stir  a  small  amount  of  lime  into  the  liquid.  After  making  carbon 
dioxide  (dilute  hydrochloric  acid  and  chalk  in  a  bottle  fitted  with 
a  tight  cork  and  bent  glass  tube)  pass*  it  through  the  juice, 
causing  impurities  to  settle.  Siphon  the  pure  juice  into  an- 
other dish,  filter  and  boil  for  several  hours.  The  resulting  sirup 
cannot  be  refined  to  obtain  sugar  crystals  but  the  children  may 
profit  by  the  lesson.  If  possible  visit  a  sugar  factory  and  make  a 
comparison  of  the  class  process  and  the  business  man's  process. 
Study  the  method  of  the  world  in  furnishing  sugar  to  its  people. 

To  harvest  the  flax,  pull  the  flax  plants  up  by  the  roots,  remove 
the  seeds  and  leaves,  place  the  flax  plants  under  water  for  three 
to  six  days.  If,  at  the  end  of  this  period,  the  stems  break  readily 
and  the  fiber  seems  to  be  loose,  place  the  plants  in  the  sun  to  dry. 


12  INTRODUCTION 

After  drying  break  the  woody  matter.  With  a  comb,  made  by 
driving  nails  through  a  piece  of  wood,  comb  out  the  fiber.  Weave 
the  fiber  into  cloth.  Study  the  method  of  the  world  to  clothe  its 
people. 

With  the  gardens  seeded  after  completion  of  lessons  I  and  II  the 
regular  lessons  may  be  taken  up  to  be  interrupted  for  attention  to 
the  young  plants  as  it  is  needed.  In  a  few  days  many  plants  will 
need  thinning  out  and  cultivation  will  be  necessary.  Demonstrate  in 
your  own  garden  thinning  and  cultivation,  bringing  out  by  question- 
ing the  reasons  for  each  step,  then  direct  the  children  to  their  own 
plots.  Ere  this  the  children  will  have  met  many  factors  at  work 
in  their  gardens.  These  will  suggest  new  fields  of  study,  insects, 
birds,  the  weather,  etc.  Study  these  factors  as  the  children  meet 
them.    See  lessons  IV  to  XI  inclusive. 

Type  Lessons 

As  suggested  before,  the  garden  is  a  little  world  of  its  own,  pat- 
terned after  the  universe.  Nearly  all  of  the  factors  which  constitute 
one^s  environment  are  found  at  work  in  the  school  garden.  When 
the  children  meet  these  new  factors  the  special  representation  should 
become  the  type  to  study.  If  the  larvae  of  the  cabbage  butterfly 
are  destroying  the  cabbages,  or  the  grasshoppers  are  attacking  the 
garden  plants,  take  one  as  a  type  and  let  it  introduce  the  children  to 
the  large  field  of  insect  life. 

After  the  "  type  ^^  has  received  careful  attention  compare  other 
animals  (if  the  type  be  an  animal)  to  it.     Keep  close  to  type  studies. 

Suggestive  Lessons 

The  following  series  of  lessons  have  been  successfully  used  in 
elementary  school  classes.  They  have  served  to  prepare  pupils  for 
successful  gardening  and  to  introduce  the  study  of  Agriculture. 

Have  each  lesson  summarized,  and  fill  in  subject  matter  as  a  need 
is  felt.  Let  each  experiment  direct  conduct.  Continually  ask 
yourself  this  question:    "  How  will  this  work  direct  conduct?  '' 

In  each  experiment  and  each  study  that  is  taken  up,  look  beyond 


INTRODUCTION  13 

the  matter  directly  at  hand.  See  more  than  the  individual  study. 
Examine  it  to  see  how  it  is  a  part  of  the  unity  of  nature. 

Emphasize  individual  work.  Each  child  should  be  given  a  specific 
problem.  When  differences  arise,  let  the  children  devise  an  experi- 
ment.    Encourage  experimental  study  at  home. 

By  all  means  perform  the  experiments.  They  take  a  little  extra 
time,  but  the  results  are  worth  it.  Showing,  not  telling,  is  the  key- 
note in  proper  teaching. 

Lesson  I  is  suggestive  for  the  use  of  Chapters  III,  IV,  and  part 
of  V  in  "  Agriculture  for  Schools  of  the  Pacific  Slope,"  Hilgard  and 
Osterhout.  In  this  lesson,  as  in  others,  to  follow  the  writers'  aim  is 
to  give  such  material  as  will  direct  conduct  in  the  growing  of  plants 
in  the  school  garden. 

Lesson  2  directs  the  application  of  Chapters  I,  II,  and  part  of  V. 

Lesson  3  recapitulates  the  work  of  the  first  two  lessons  in  part. 

Lessons  4  and  5  help  in  the  use  of  Chapter  I. 

Lesson  6  deals  with  parts  of  Chapters  IV,  V,  and  part  of  XII, 
relative  to  the  work  of  stems  and  roots. 

Lesson  7  suggests  the  use  of  Chapters  VI  and  VII. 

Lesson  8  helps  to  introduce  Chapter  VIII. 

Lesson  9  suggests  the  use  of  Chapters  XV  and  XVI. 

Lesson  10  suggests  a  method  for  the  application  of  Chapter  XVIII. 

Lesson  11  will  aid  in  presenting  Chapter  XIII. 

These  lessons  are  only  suggestive  as  to  the  use  of  the  text.  It 
should  be  used  to  supplement  the  lessons. 

The  length  of  time  given  to  each  lesson  should  be  determined  (1) 
by  the  value  of  the  subject  matter  in  directing  conduct,  (2)  by  the 
interest  of  the  class. 

The  lessons  may  be  used  in  any  grade  from  the  5th  to  the  8th  in- 
clusive. We  have  found  it  best  to  begin  agriculture  in  the  5th  or 
6th  grade. 


LESSON  I 
THE    SOIL 

Unit  of  Instruction.  —  The  soil. 

General  Topic  Aim.  —  To  interest  the  children  in  soil,  to  teach 
the  relation  existing  between  soil  and  themselves. 

Specific  Lesson  Aim.  —  To  teach  the  composition  of  the  soil, 
the  characteristics  of  clay,  sand,  and  humus,  and  the  relation  of 
water  to  each. 

Children's  Aim.  —  To  learn  more  about  soil,  since  life  depends 
upon  it. 

There  are  two  ways  of  introducing  new  subject  matter  to 
children:  (1)  formally,  —  "Children,  this  morning  we  are  going 
to  study  the  cabbage  butterfly ;  "  (2)  by  making  the  children 
feel  the  need  of  the  new  subject.  There  may  be  points  of  interest 
in  the  study  of  the  cabbage  butterfly,  but  how  much  more  vital 
to  the  child  is  knowledge  of  this  insect  if  it  has  attacked  the 
cabbage  plants  in  the  child's  garden  and  he  realizes  that  it  is  a 
question  of  spoiled  cabbages  or  the  death  of  the  pest.  In  the 
one  case  the  interest  is  superficial,  in  the  other  it  is  vital. 

The  first  step  in  any  lesson  is  to  make  the  children  feel  the 
need  of  the  work  at  hand.  Develop  in  the  minds  of  the  children 
the  value  of  agricultural  and  soil  study  by  leading  them  to  see 
the  relation  of  the  soil  to  their  own  living,  that  without  soil 
there  could  be  no  homes,  no  food  nor  life  of  any  kind.  Ask  them 
where  the  glass  in  the  window  came  from,  the  source  of  their 
clothing,  food,  etc.,  leading  the  children  to  see  that  the  real  source 
is  the  soil.  From  the  soil  radiate  the  factors  which  constitute 
our  environment.      (Fig.  2.) 

14 


THE  SOIL 


16 


GLASS 


SANDPAPER 


Q^  MACHINERY 


I  UTENSILS 


6--^ 


CLOTHING   Q^  ^  MEDICINE 

Fig.  2. 


CLOTHING  ETC. 


Development  of  Lesson 

Soil  is  composed  of  clay,  sand,  humus.  In  test  tubes  or  small 
dishes  of  any  kind  give  the  children  individual  samples  of  clay 
and  sand. 

Sand  has  Coarse  Texture,  Clay  has  Fine.  —  Class  examine  these 
samples  and  tell  me  the  names  for  each.  Now  look  closely  so 
that  you  may  answer  the  following  questions :  (1)  in  which  are 
the  particles  larger  ?  (2)  in  which  do  they  roll  about  more  easily  ? 
Would  you  rather  plow  sand  or  clay?  Why  ?  Let  me  draw  a 
picture  of  sand  and  clay  particles.      (Fig.  3.) 

The  brick  chimney  is  built  by  piling  one  brick  upon  another. 
If  we  should  pile  sand  particles  one  upon  another,  what  would 


16 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 


we    build?     **  Funnels."     The   same   would   happen    with    clay 
particles.      Would   you  like  to  know  the  name  of  these  funnels 

in    soil?      Capillary    tubes. 


In  which  are  the  tubes  larger  ? 
Color  of  Sand,  Clay. — 
Notice  the  shining  sand  par- 
ticles; what  color  do  they 
give  to  the  sand?  What  is 
the  color  of  the  clay? 

The  characteristics  of  hu- 
mus resemble  more  nearly 
those  of  clay  than  those  of 
sand.  (Pass  out  samples  of 
soil  containing  humus . )  What 
do  you  find  in  this  soil  not  found  in  the  other  samples  ?  What  does 
it  look  like? 

(With  a  flame  of  some  kind  heat  the  humus  in  a  tin  until  it  smoul- 
ders.)    Where  have  you  noticed  this  odor  before  ?    What  is  humus  ? 
I  found  this  humus  beneath  a  tree.     Where  did  the  vegetable  matter 
come  from?    Name  other  sources  of  humus. 
Humus  and  Clay  are  Cold.    Sand  is  Warm.  —  (Fill  three  cans  with 


Fig.  3. 


TRANSPIRATIONAL  LOSS 


-Jlhili 


EVAPORATION 
LOSS 


CAPILLARY 
WATER 


Fig.  4. 

humus,  clay,  and  sand;  put  a  thermometer  in  each  to  determine 
the  temperature.)  Sand  is  too  warm,  clay  and  humus  are  too  cold ; 
what  shall  we  do?    "  Mix  sand  and  clay."    How  can  we  find  out 


THE  SOIL 


17 


whether  John  is  right?  "  Experiment."  Yes,  to  prove  a  theory 
one  must  experiment.  (Have  children  see  that  one  experiment 
alone  may  not  furnish  proof.) 

Place  in  a  medium-sized  bottle  a  small  amount  of  humus,  sand, 
and  clay.  Add  water  till  the  bottle  is  nearly  filled.  Shake  well  and 
set  aside. 

Relation  of  Sand,  Humus,  and  Clay  to  Water.  —  (Develop  the 
great  work  of  water  in  the  environment  of  man.  Put  the  drawing 
upon  the  board.  (Fig.  4.)  How  does  the  water  get  to  soil  natu- 
rally ?  Artificially  ?  By  the  way,  is  it  better  to  sprinkle  or  irrigate  ? 
How  shall  we  find  out  ?  Yes,  by  experimenting.  This  we  shall  do 
later.     (Create  questions  to  be  answered  by  experimentation.) 


MOSQUITO 
"    NETTING 


Fig.  5. 


Gravitational  Water  Moves  Rapidly  in  Sand  and  Cloddy  Soil,  Sloy? 
in  Humus  and  Clay.  —  I  have  three  glass  tubes,  one  filled  with  sand, 
c 


18  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

one  with  clay,  and  one  with  cloddy  soil,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5.  The 
material  is  held,  as  you  will  notice,  with  cloth  tied  over  the  bottoms. 
I  am  going  to  pour  the  same  amount  of  water  into  each.  In  which 
do  you  think  the  water  will  get  through  first  ?  Why  in  the  sand, 
Mary?  "  Because  the  particles  are  larger  and  the  tubes  are  larger.^' 
How  many  agree?  Since  we  all  agree,  is  there  any  need  of  trying 
the  experiment?  Why?  Yes,  to  prove  Mary's  theory.  (Pour 
the  water  into  the  tubes.)  The  sand  wins.  (When  children  dis- 
agree as  to  their  ideas,  let  each  choose  his  tube  and  imagine  a  race.) 
Gravitational  water  carries  food  to  the  plant  from  the  surface  soil 
on  its  way  down.     Why  is  it  called  gravitational  water? 

Gravitational  Water  may  be  Conserved  by  Loosening  the  Top  Soil, 
by  Growing  Plants,  by  Contour  Plowing,  by  Cultivating  the  Seed 
Bed.  —  We  have  found  gravitational  water  to  run  quickly  through 
sand  and  cloddy  soil.  What  do  these  experiments  teach  us  about 
conserving  gravitational  water?  Let  us  be  particular  in  ridding  the 
seed  bed  of  clods  when  we  start  the  gardens. 

Trees  and  Undergrowth  Prevent  Run-oflf.  —  What  becomes  of  the 
water  that  strikes  the  side  of  a  hill?  Yes,  it  is  called  the  run-off. 
The  run-off  causes  floods.  What  happens  each  year  along  the 
Sacramento  River  during  a  wet  winter?  What  causes  these  floods? 
How  can  the  run-off  be  prevented?  Yes,  each  tree  has  a  mass  of 
roots,  each  tree  is  like  a  tub,  and  keeps  the  water  from  being  lost. 
(Enlarge  on  the  value  of  forestry.  See  Chapter  23  in  text.)  Con- 
tour plowing  also  prevents  the  run-off. 

Capillary  Water  Climbs  High  in  Clay.  —  Empty  the  glass  tubes, 
keep  the  wet  earth  and  set  aside.  Mix  into  balls  sand  and  clay, 
sand  and  humus,  clay  and  humus ;  moisten  and  set  aside  for  the  next 
lesson.  Fill  the  tubes  with  dry  sand,  clay,  and  cloddy  soil.  Stand  in 
a  basin  of  water.  (See  Figs.  20,  21,  pages  45  and  46  in  text.)  In 
which  will  the  water  climb  up  the  highest  ?  (Children  seldom  for- 
mulate a  correct  theory.)  In  a  tumbler  place  different  sizes  of  glass 
tubes,  ranging  from  very  fine  (capillary)  tubes  to  a  large  tube.  Fill 
the  tumbler  with  colored  water.  (To  make  capillary  tubes,  heat 
glass  tubing  in  a  flame.  When  it  softens  draw  from  the  flame  and 
quickly  pull  the  glass  to  the  desired  diameter.    Hold  the  tube  at  each 


THE  SOIL  19 

end  and  keep  it  turning  while  in  the  heat.)  In  which  tube  does 
the  water  climb  the  highest  ?  Now  who  can  tell  in  which  cylinder 
the  water  will  climb  the  highest?     Why  in  the  clay? 

(In  short  tubes  the  water  will  climb  most  rapidly  in  the  sand. 
This  gives  the  teacher  a  chance  to  point  out  the  value  of  many 
experiments  to  prove  a  theory.  If  tubes  twelve  to  twenty-four 
inches  in  length  are  used,  the  capillary  water  reaches  the  top  in  the 
clay  most  quickly.)  Observe  that  the  water  climbs  very  slowly 
in  the  cloddy  soil.  It  is  the  water  which  climbs  back  that  the  plants 
need.     Who  knows  another  reason  for  making  the  seed  bed  fine? 

The  Mulch.  —  If  I  break  this  small  tube  about  halfway  down, 
what  might  happen,  Fred?  How  can  we  stop  the  overflow? 
"  Plug  with  cotton. ''  If  the  soil  is  filled  with  these  minute  capil- 
lary tubes,  what  is  the  water  doing?  On  clear  days  how  can  we 
prevent  the  overflow ?  Why  can't  we  see  the  water  as  it  comes  out? 
But  how  can  we  plug  the  tubes?  "  With  dirt."  Yes,  by  making 
a  fine  mulch  with  harrows  or  hoes.  Let  us  remember  how  to  con- 
serve this  moisture  after  we  start  the  gardens.  (Develop  value  of 
dry  farming.     See  Widtsoe's  "  Dry  Farming,''  The  Macmillan  Co.) 

Humus  and  Clay  Hold  Water  Best.  Sand  Loses  Water  Rapidly.  — 
(After  the  capillary  action  in  the  three  tubes  of  earth  is  complete, 
weigh  each,  and  from  day  to  day  weigh  again  to  determine  which 
kind  retains  water  best,  or  arrange  as  in  Fig.  5.  The  amount  of 
water  in  the  bottles  shows  relative  loss  of  gravitational  water  or 
retaining  power  of  sand,  humus,  and  clay.  Put  the  same  amount 
of  sand,  clay,  and  humus  in  separate  boxes.  Weigh  each.  Add 
the  same  amount  of  water  by  weight  to  each.  Weigh  each  day.) 
What  kind  of  earth  loses  capillary  water  most  rapidly?  (Draw 
attention  to  the  rains  in  the  desert.  Point  out  how  the  cactus  is 
adapted  to  getting  water  quickly  and  how  the  modified  stems  store 
water.) 

Sand  with  a  Clayey  Bed  Conserves  Water.  —  Since  sand  does  not 
hold  water  readily  and  clay  does,  which  ranch  would  you  rather 
purchase,  one  with  a  sandy  bed  several  feet  below  the  surface  or 
one  with  a  clay  bed?  Why  the  one  with  a  clay  bed,  James? 
"  Moisture  would  be  held  from  seeping  away,  while  it  would  escape 


20  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

through  the  sand."  How  might  the  land  be  tested?  By  using  a 
post  auger  one  might  bore  and  determine  the  kind  of  base.  If  wate^ 
is  convenient  for  irrigating,  a  sandy  base  is  not  bad.  For  the 
growing  of  trees  a  deep,  uniform  soil  is  best. 

(Place  a  portion  of  a  plant  through  a  cardboard  fitted  to  the  top 
of  a  tumbler  so  that  the  stem  reaches  water.  Invert  another  tumbler 
over  the  plant  and  set  aside  for  the  next  lesson.  This  is  to  illustrate 
loss  of  moisture  through  transpiration  and  will  suggest  the  treat- 
ment of  weed  growth  in  the  gardens.) 

LESSON  II 
THE   SOIL  AND   THE   SEED 

Review  the  lesson  on  the  soil,  emphasizing  those  things  that  will 
direct  conduct  in  the  gardens, — how  to  test  the  soil  in  the  garden, 
how  to  improve  the  same,  how  to  conserve  moisture,  the  harmful- 
ness  and  value  of  a  sandy  and  a  clayey  subsoil,  how  to  test  for  the 
same,  etc. 

Examine  the  bottle  of  soil  and  water  left  over  from  the  previous 
lesson.  The  relative  weight  and  percentages  of  humus,  clay,  and 
sand  are  indexed.  Point  out  that  valley  farms  are  best  because  the 
water  carries  the  light  particles  to  the  lowland.  The  larger  particles 
are  deposited  in  and  near  the  foothills.  Classify  soils  according  to 
the  percentage  of  coarse  and  fine  sand  in  each. 

80-100  %  sand  means  sandy  soil 
60-  80  %  sand  means  sandy  loam 
40-  60  %  sand  means  loam 
20-  40  %  sand  means  clayey  loam 
0-  20  %  sand  means  clay 

If  the  time  permits,  point  out  the  action  of  fire,  water,  air,  plants, 
and  animals  in  making  soil. 

Examine  the  dry  balls  of  sand,  clay,  humus,  and  the  mixtures 
prepared  at  the  previous  lesson.  Clay  soil  bakes  and  puddles. 
Addition  of   sand  or  humus  prevents  this.    Sand  i^  too  loose  in 


THE  SOIL  AND   THE  SEED  21 

texture.  Humus  and  clay  give  improvement.  Make  up  an  ideal 
soil. 

New  Work 

General  Topic  Aim.  —  To  interest  the  pupils  in  plant  life  through 
a  study  of  the  seed ;  to  point  out  the  relationship  existing  between 
seeds  and  the  life  of  the  pupils ;  to  let  the  seed  offer  its  small  bit 
to  build  up  a  large  perspective  of  the  pupils'  environment  and  to  aid 
in  forming  the  individual's  philosophy. 

Specific  Lesson  Aim.  —  To  teach  such  fundamental  principles  re- 
garding seeds  as  will  direct  the  pupils'  conduct  in  the  school  garden ; 
namely,  (1)  what  is  a  seed?  (2)  how  deep  shall  a  seed  be  planted? 
(3)  how  far  apart  to  plant  seeds,  etc. 

Method  of  Approach.  —  Put  several  Windsor  (or  Lima)  beans  to 
soak  several  days  before  the  lesson. 

The  Lesson 

How  deep  would  you  plant  wheat?  What  a  variety  of  answers 
you  have ;  they  vary  in  suggestions  as  to  depth  from  one  half  inch 

to  two  feet.    At  S I  gave  the  pupils  some  Acacia  seeds,  which 

are  about  the  size  of  wheat,  and  asked  for  depth  to  plant.  Their 
answers  varied  from  one  inch  to  two  feet,  just  as  do  yours.  Whose 
suggestions  shall  we  follow?  Do  you  not  think  we  had  better  learn 
something  about  seeds  before  we  attempt  to  plant  them?  To-day 
we  shall  learn  how  deep  and  how  far  apart  to  plant  seeds. 

Water  Enters  first  through  Micropyle  near  the  Hilum.  —  (Give 
each  pupil  a  bean  which  has  started  to  sprout.)  What  does  a  seed 
need  before  it  wakens?  How  does  the  water  get  into  the  seed? 
Look  closely.  Yes,  there  may  be  holes.  Into  this  glass  of  warm 
boiled  water  I  am  going  to  drop  two  beans.  (See  Fig.  2,  page  4  in 
text. )  Notice  what  happens.  Where  are  the  bubbles  coming  from  ? 
The  little  opening  which  you  see  is  called  the  micropyle  and  through 
it  the  first  water  enters.  If  you  look  closely  at  your  bean  you  may 
find  the  micropyle.  I  am  going  to  drop  these  beans  into  water. 
The  micropyles  are  closed  with  vaseline.  What  happens?  (The 
teacher  should  never  hesitate  to  use  the  proper  name  when  its  need 


22  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

is  felt.)  Here  I  have  several  peas  in  a  pod.  Notice  how  each  pea 
is  fastened  to  the  pod.  Examine  the  bean  you  have  and  tell  me 
where  you  think  it  was  attached  to  the  pod.  That  place  on  the  pea 
is  called  the  hilum.  If  the  water  enters  first  near  the  hilum  we  must 
be  careful  to  plant  the  seeds  in  what  manner  ?  Yes,  with  the  hilum 
down  or  far  enough  beneath  the  soil  to  insure  water  entering  the 
micropyle.  How  can  we  prove  this?  Bring  in  some  plan  that  we 
may  try  later  or  experiment  at  home. 

Water  also  Enters  Seed  through  Coat  by  Osmosis  after  Sugar 
Has  Begun  to  Form.  —  Carefully  remove  the  covering  of  the  seed  in 
two  halves.  Do  you  suppose  that  water  could  pass  directly  through 
the  cover?  Is  there  any  way  to  find  out?  Here,  I  have  these  two 
halves.  In  one  I  shall  place  a  little  sugar  and  shall  float  each  in 
this  tumbler  of  water.  I  am  going  to  treat  these  walnut  shells  in 
the  same  way.  Notice  from  day  to  day  what  happens.  (See  Fig. 
9,  page  15  in  text.) 

Seed  Gets  rid  of  Coat  at  Once.  —  What  is  the  first  thing  the  seed 
tries  to  do  when  it  begins  to  pump  water?  If  that  is  so,  is  the  seed 
coat  of  value  ?  How  shall  we  find  out  ?  Yes,  we  now  have  another 
experiment  to  try.  (Seeds  put  into  water  at  the  beginning  of  the 
lesson  wrinkle.     See  Fig.  1,  page  3  in  text.) 

If  this  seed  were  planted,  what  would  come  from  it?  Carefully 
pull  the  two  parts  open,  leaving  a  hinge.  How  many  can  find  the 
little  bean,  the  little  embryo,  as  it  is  called  ?  What  is  the  first  thing 
needed  by  a  young  animal?  What  is  the  first  thing  needed  by  the 
embryo  plant?  Where  is  its  food?  What  do  you  think  would 
happen  if  we  planted  the  embryo  by  itself  ?  The  food  is  stored  in 
these  seed  leaves,  or  cotyledons.  Yes,  we  will  try  it.  This  stored 
food  is  to  feed  the  embryo  until  it  can  fix  the  roots  and  get  its  leaves 
to  the  sunlight,  so  which  seed  should  we  plant  Ifhe  deeper,  the  wheat 
seed  or  the  bean?  Would  you  like  to  know  a  general  plan  to 
follow?  Seeds  are  usually  planted  at  a  depth  ranging  from  three 
to  five  times  their  diameter. 

Mono-,  Di-,  Polycotyledonous  Plants.  —  (Having  named  the  seed 
leaves  as  cotyledons  develop  the  classification  of  plants  into  mono-, 
di-,  and  polycotyledonous  divisions.    Also  draw  attention   to   the 


THE  SOIL  AND   THE  SEED  23 

radicle  and  plumule.  However,  the  essential  fact  to  leave  in  the 
minds  of  the  children  is  that  the  embryo,  and  usually  its  stored  food, 
constitute  the  seed.) 

How  Far  Apart  to  Plant  Seeds.  —  How  far  apart  shall  we  plant 
these  radish  seeds  ?  These  lettuce  seeds  ?  Your  answers  differ.  We 
must  know  how  far  apart  to  plant  seeds  before  going  ahead.  Notice 
the  roots  of  the  radish  and  the  lettuce.  (Knock  the  end  out  of  a  chalk 
box.  Get  old  camera  plates  3i  x  4J  inches,  clean,  slip  two  into  the 
grooves  of  the  box.  Place  a  piece  of  black  cloth  next  to  the  glass 
and  fill  the  box  with  fine  soil.  Several  days  before  the  lesson,  plant 
lettuce  and  radish  next  to  the  glass.  Between  two  plates  of  glass 
place  two  or  three  thicknesses  of  blotters.  Next  to  the  glass  on  the 
blotter  sides  place  two  pieces  of  black  cloth.  At  one  edge  of  the 
apparatus  place  corn  seeds  side  by  side  between  the  cloth  and  the 
glass.  Treat  wheat  seeds  in  a  like  manner  on  the  reverse  side. 
Stretch  a  rubber  band  around  the  apparatus  to  hold  seeds  and  glass 
in  place.  Suspend  in  a  jar  of  water.  Observe  results  from  day  to 
day.)  Now,  who  can  tell  me  why  radish  seeds  are  planted  closely 
together  and  lettuce  seeds  farther  apart,  since  you  know  what  the 
roots  are  for?  According  to  our  new  knowledge  how  far  apart  shall 
we  plant  turnip  seeds?  Pansy  seeds?  Wheat?  Corn? 

Root  and  Top  Space  Usually  Determine  Distance  Apart  to  Plant 
Seeds.  —  Just  as  different  plants  need  different  root  space,  so  do 
they  need  variable  top  space.  The  cabbage  needs  plenty  of  top 
space  to  mature  a  fine  large  head.  This  factor  must  be  remem- 
bered to  help  us  in  planting  and  transplanting. 

Notes 

These  lessons  may  be  given  but  once  a  week  for  one  period,  since 
their  aim  is  to  direct  conduct  in  the  school  gardens  which  are  soon 
to  be  started.  A  great  deal  of  valuable  material  may  be  woven  into 
each  lesson  if  a  teacher  so  desires,  such  as :  methods  used  by  Nature 
to  bury  her  seeds,  the  reasons  for  doing  this ;  seed  dispersal,  seed 
adaptations.  The  teacher  should  ever  see  beyond  the  seed,  beyond 
the  material  at  hand,  to  the  larger  lessons.    Each  study  should 


24  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

add  its  bit  to  emphasize  the  great  study  of  evolution  and  its  kindred 
subjects.  Our  suggestion,  however,  if  time  is  limited,  is  to  give  only 
those  things  that  direct  immediate  conduct  now.  Later  the  other 
factors  may  be  taken  up. 

At  the  close  of  this  lesson  the  children  are  ready  to  work  under- 
standingly  in  the  preparation  of  the  gardens.  They  know  how 
to  prepare  a  seed  bed  and  why  each  step  is  to  be  taken.  They  know 
how  to  plant  seeds.  Logically,  this  is  the  time  to  start  the  school 
gardens.    The  following  lessons  should  be  given  as  time  permits. 

LESSON  III 
PROBLEM    QUESTIONS 

During  the  first  two  lessons  on  soils  and  plants  certain  problem 
questions  have  arisen.  While  some  of  the  pupils  may  have  ex- 
perimented to  solve  the  problems,  a  period  should  be  taken  to  set 
up  experiments  designed  to  answer  the  questions.  (See  Introduc- 
tion.) 

Read  or  state  the  following  problem  questions  to  the  children  and 
let  them  select  such  as  appeal  to  them. 

1.  Does  the  water  enter  first  through  the  hilum? 

2.  Is  the  seed  coat  of  value  to  the  seed? 

3.  How  deep  shall  seeds  be  planted  ? 

4.  Does  the  seed  use  much  force  in  breaking  open  its  coat? 

5.  What  device  is  used  by  some  seeds  to  bury  themselves? 

6.  Shall  one  irrigate  or  sprinkle  one's  garden? 

7.  What  effect  has  cultivation  on  loss  of  moisture?    A  mulch? 

8.  Why  should  one  make  the  seed  bed  fine  in  texture? 

9.  Will  seeds  grow  well  in  sand?     In  clay?     In  humus?     Or 
better  in  a  mixture  of  the  three? 

10.   What  is  the  effect  of  too  much  water  on  seeds? 

Usually  a  class  of  forty  children  choose  experiments  in  such  a  way 
that  they  work  in  groups  of  four  and  five. 

With  the  experiments  assigned,  give  definite  suggestions  to  each 
group  relative  to  their  experiment  or,  better,  let  the  children  devise 
the  experiment. 


PROBLEMS  25 

Experiment  1.  —  In  chalk  boxes  filled  with  earth,  bury  six  Wind- 
sor or  lima  beans  half  under  the  soil  with  the  hilum  exposed  to  the 
air.  Plant  six  with  the  hilum  down  and  lay  six  flat  on  the  soil. 
Keep  the  surface  moist  and  observe  from  day  to  day.  Make  records 
in  notebooks.     (See  Fig.  3,  page  5  in  text.) 

Experiment  2.  —  Put  twelve  beans  in  water  over  night.  (Teacher 
should  do  this  before  the  lesson.)  Carefully  remove  the  seed  coats 
from  six  beans.  Plant  the  twelve  beans  and  give  them  all  the  same 
treatment. 

Experiment  3.  —  Knock  out  one  end  of  a  chalk  box.  Slide  two 
spoiled,  clean  camera  plates  3i  x  4i  inches  into  the  grooves  of  the 
box.  Place  a  black  cloth  against  the  glass  and  fill  the  box  with 
moist  earth  or  sawdust.  Press  seeds  between  the  cloth  and  the  glass 
at  different  depths.     Determine  best  depth  to  plant  seeds. 

Experiment  4.  —  Fill  a  bottle  with  dry  beans.  Place  the  bottle 
in  water.     Observe  results.     (See  Fig.  5,  page  8  in  text.) 

Experiment  5.  —  Into  a  bunch  of  cotton  place  alfilaria  seeds, 
foxtails,  and  oats.  Observe  results.  Discuss  other  methods  that 
Nature  uses  to  bury  seeds.     (See  Fig.  90,  page  174  in  text.) 

Experiment  6.  —  Plant  rows  of  seeds  in  two  boxes.  Give  the  same 
treatment  to  all.  Measure  out  the  same  amount  of  water  for  each 
box.  Sprinkle  one  box  and  irrigate  the  other.  Watch  results 
from  day  to  day. 

Experiment  7.  —  Fill  two  boxes  of  the  same  size  with  soil  until 
they  weigh  the  same.  Add  the  same  amount  of  water  by 
weight  to  each.  The  following  day  carefully  cultivate  the  surface 
of  the  soil  in  one  box.    Weigh  both  boxes  each  day.     Wliat  happens  ? 

Experiment  8.  —  Grow  seeds  in  boxes  containing  cloddy  soil  and 
fine  soil.     Give  the  seeds  the  same  treatment.     Observe  results. 

Experiment  9.  —  Grow  seeds  in  clay,  sand,  humus,  and  in  mix- 
tures of  the  three.  Treat  all  boxes  alike.  Observe  and  draw  con- 
clusions. 

Experiment  10.  —  Fill  two  tumblers  with  soil.  Plant  seeds  in 
each.  Keep  one  tumbler  of  soil  moist.  On  the  surface  of  the  other 
soil  keep  water  standing. 


26  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

Notes 

Soil  to  be  used  one  day  should  be  watered  the  preceding  day  and 
allowed  to  stand  without  disturbance  over  night.  Do  not  water 
and  stir  soil  at  the  same  time. 

Each  experiment  should  be  set  up  neatly  and  carefully.  Small 
labels  should  be  placed  at  the  head  of  each  seed  row,  indexing  the 
kinds  of  seeds  planted  and  the  date.  These  labels  may  be  pur- 
chased at  a  low  price  from  seed  houses  or  made  from  shingles. 

In  all  cases  be  sure  that  the  children  know  what  the  experiments 
are  to  teach  so  that  they  will  direct  conduct  in  the  garden  work. 
The  children  must  also  know  the  law  of  majorities,  that  one  experi- 
ment does  not  always  suffice,  but  that  several  demonstrations  are 
necessary  for  proof.  All  sources  for  error  must  be  pointed  out  and 
avoided  so  far  as  possible.  When  necessary,  control  or  check  ex- 
periments, for  comparison  should  be  used  in  children's  experiments 
and  teacher's  demonstrations. 


LESSON  IV 
THE    NEEDS    OF   THE    SEED    AND    THE    PLANT 

Have  the  children  examine  the  progress  of  the  experiments  started 
at  the  previous  lesson.  Be  sure  that  the  aim  of  each  experiment  is 
understood.  Apply  the  results  to  the  garden  work.  Experiments 
1,  2,  3,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10  are  particularly  of  value  in  the  direction  of 
conduct.     Make  notes  recording  the  progress  of  the  problems. 

Experiment  (1)  teaches  that  the  hilum  at  least  must  be  beneath 
the  soil.  Many  seeds,  such  as  the  canna,  cannot  secure  much 
water  through  their  horny  seed  coats.  This  is  the  first  necessity 
of  the  seed.  In  this  case  the  coat  is  harmful  and  must  be  filed  in 
order  to  let  water  in.  Pine  seeds  germinate  sooner  if  a  hole  is 
drilled  in  the  seed  coat  at  the  germ  end.  Experiment  (2)  suggests 
conduct  in  the  above  direction.  Experiment  (3)  enables  one  to  for- 
mulate a  rule  that  seeds  are  planted  usually  at  a  depth  3  to  5  times 
their  diameter.    Experiments  6  and  7  teach  the  fundamental  prin- 


THE  NEEDS  OF  THE  SEED  AND  THE  PLANT      27 

ciple  of  water  application  and  dry  farming.  Experiments  8,  9,  10 
direct  conduct  in  the  selection  and  preparation  of  the  seed  bed,  in 
apphcation  of  water,  and  in  planting  seeds. 

The  Needs  of  Seeds  and  Plants 

General  Topic  Aim.  —  Same  as  in  Lesson  II. 

Specific  Lesson  Aim.  —  To  teach  that  the  embryo  plant  needs  air, 
water,  and  warmth  for  growth  —  that  the  plant,  free  from  the  seed, 
needs  sunshine  in  addition  —  in  order  that  proper  methods  may  be 
used  in  the  garden  to  supply  each. 

The  Lesson 

(The  most  interesting  thing  to  a  child  is  himself.  The  teacher 
should  make  the  most  of  this  in  all  school  work.)  Children,  who 
can  tell  me  what  we  need  in  order  to  live  ?  You  are  right,  we  must  all 
have  food,  water,  sunshine,  and  warmth.  Some  day  and  possibly 
very  soon  I  should  like  to  know  if  you  are  getting  each  of  these 
in  the  proper  way.     (See  Lesson  X.) 

Little  Difference  between  Low  Form  of  Plant  and  Animal  Life.  — 
What  is  a  seed,  Fred?  Correct.  What  is  a  plant?  Your  answers 
differ.  What  is  an  animal?  Again  you  are  puzzled.  You  do  not 
dej&ne  either  one  so  as  to  shut  out  the  other.  And  there  is  little 
wonder,  for  many  of  our  brightest  men  and  women  cannot  do  this. 
There  is  a  little  living  thing  (picture  on  board)  Uglena  which  seems 
to  be  both  like  an  animal  and  a  plant.  This  organism  is  found  in  the 
water.     (See  any  text  on  Zoology  or  Biology.) 

If  an  animal  and  a  plant  are  so  much  alike  what  does  the  plant 
need?  Are  you  sure  that  the  embryo  plant  needs  sunshine ?  What 
have  we  discovered  that  the  seed  tries  to  do  as  soon  as  it  reaches 
the  soil?  Does  the  little  plant  within  need  sunshine?  How  can 
we  find  out?  How  shall  we  arrange  the  experiment?  That  is  a 
good  suggestion. 

Plants  Need  Air. — Here  are  two  bottles,  a  cork,  and  seeds.  How 
can  we  prove  that  seeds  and  plants  need  air?  We  shall  follow  May's 
suggestion.     (Arrange  experiment  and  set  aside,  use  cotton  as  the 


28 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 


)A 


1 


Fig.  6. 


seed  medium.     Use  six-  or  eight-ounce  bottles  with  wide  mouths. 
Also  suggest  and  set  up  this  experiment  —  plant  seeds  in  a  tumblerful 
D  of  soil,  add  water  until  all  soil  air  is  driven  out, 

and  set  aside.) 

Plants  Need  Warmth.  —  How  can  we  find 
out  if  plants  need  warmth?  How  many  know 
without  experimenting?  Yes,  Geography  tells 
us.  However,  let  us  devise  some  method  with 
these  seeds,  the  stove,  and  the  coldest  spot  we 
can  find.  What  shall  we  do?  (Plant  seeds 
in  three  bottles  as  in  Fig.  6.  Place  one 
near  the  stove,  one  on  the  window  sill  inside, 
and  one  outside.  Each  should  be  given  the 
same  treatment  as  to  water.) 
Plants  Need  Food.  —  Do  plants  need  food?  How  may  we  prove 
John's  answer?  (The  pupils  are  slow  in  devising  this  experiment. 
Arrange  five  chalk  boxes,  put  cotton,  sawdust,  sand,  clay,  and  mixture 
of  sand,  humus,  and  clay  in  separate  boxes.  Plant  the  same  kind 
of  seed  in  each  box  and  give  all  the  same  treatment.  Fill  another 
series  of  boxes  with  sawdust.  Using  the  same  amount  of  water  add 
distilled  water  to  one,  tap  water  to  another,  distilled  water  contain- 
ing a  nitrate,  distilled  water  containing  a  phosphate,  and  distilled 
water  containing  a  potash  salt  to  others.  Or  better,  fill  several 
beakers  or  tumblers  partly  full  of  distilled  water,  suspend  a  few  of 
the  same  kind  of  seeds  in  the  water  by  using  mosquito  netting.  Cut 
the  netting  considerably  larger  than  the  circumference  of  a  beaker, 
place  over  a  beaker  and  fasten  in  place  with  a  rubber  band.  With 
the  finger  force  the  sag  in  the  netting  to  the  surface  of  the  water, 
and  add  the  seeds.  To  prevent  evaporation  and  to  shut  out 
bacteria  cover  the  opening  of  the  beaker  with  cotton.  Add  plant 
foods  as  desired  to  the  different  beakers,  first  making  up  1  per  cent 
solutions,  etc.  See  Osterhout's  ''Experiments  with  Plants,'' 
pp.  137-140,  listed  in  Appendix  C.  (For  distilling  water  arrange  a 
cake  pan  and  two  ordinary  pans  as  shown  in  cut.  Put  water  in 
the  upper  and  lower  pans  and  heat.  Osterhout's  "Experiment 
with  Plants,"  page  137  for  cut.) 


THE  NEEDS  OF  THE  SEED  AND  THE  PLANT      29 

In  one  box  of  sawdust  or  soil  place  three  rows  of  Windsor  beans. 
Later,  as  the  seed  leaves  appear,  break  them  off  the  plants  in  the 
first  row.  A  week  later  treat  the  second  row  similarly.  Observe 
from  day  to  day.     What  is  the  function  of  the  seed  leaves? 

The  Embyro  Plant  Does  Not  Need  Sunshine  for  Growth.  The 
Plant  Free  at  the  Surface  Does. — Think  of  the  seed  with  its  tough 
cover  laying  in  the  soil  and  tell  me  if  the  embryo  plant  needs  sun- 
shine. Devise  some  experiments  with  these  plates,  blotters,  and 
seeds.  (Place  seed  on  the  blotters  in  one  plate  and  cover  with  an- 
other so  as  to  shut  out  sunlight.)  How  shall  we  prove  that  plants 
need  sunshine?  (Start  similar  seeds  in  two  boxes  or  bottles  as  in 
cut  shown  on  the  preceding  page,  place  one  in  the  dark  and  one  in 
the  light.) 

Notes 

The  children  know  that  the  plants  need  moisture.  However, 
peas  may  be  started  in  sawdust  and  after  the  plants  come  up  they 
may  be  allowed  to  wilt.  Add  water  to  refresh  them.  Water  not  only 
conveys  food  to  the  plant  but  makes  it  plump  and  strong  (turgid). 

The  apparatus  for  this  lesson  should  be  ready  beforehand.  If 
apparatus  and  room  permit,  it  is  best  to  let  the  children  set  up  the 
experiments  and  take  care  of  them.  Keep  them  well  arranged  in 
the  room,  labeled  as  follows :  "Do  plants  need  air?  '^  "Do  plants 
need  sunshine?  "  etc. 

The  next  lesson  will  deal  with  the  application  of  the  results  ob- 
tained from  these  experiments.  Each  experiment  aims  to  direct 
conduct  in  the  gardens. 

Again  let  us  suggest  that  the  classroom  experimental  work  should 
be  sacrificed  to  the  school  garden  if  time  does  not  allow  for  atten- 
tion to  both. 

LESSON  V 

THE     NEEDS     OF     THE      SEED      AND      THE     PLANT 

(Continued) 

(The  experiments  started  at  the  previous  lesson  should  be  ex- 
amined one  by  one  and  the  results  applied  to  the  garden  work. 


30  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

Hold  up  the  two  bottles  containing  cotton  and  seeds.  Do  the 
embryo  plants  need  air  ?  Yes,  there  is  no  growth  in  the  bottle  which 
is  corked.  Notice  this  tumbler  in  w^hich  I  planted  seeds.)  Again 
we  find  no  growth.  If  the  embryo  plants  need  air  how  can  we  satisfy 
this  need  in  the  gardens? 

(Develop  the  following  facts  by  questions.  The  soil  texture  may 
be  modified.  Organic  matter  added  to  soil  improves  it.  It  opens 
the  clay  so  that  air  circulates  more  freely.  It  binds  the  sand  more 
closely.  Organic  Si^r  prevents  soil  from  puddling,  thus  keeping 
it  free  for  the  entrance  of  air. 

The  pore-space  may  be  enlarged  for  the  admittance  of  air.  Soil 
is  composed  of  varying  particles  of  clay,  sand,  and  humus.  Air 
spaces  exist  at  the4lBeting  places  of  these  particles.  It  follows  that 
the  size  and  number  of  4ihe  air  spaces  vary  with  the  size  of  the  parti- 
cles. The  number  of  pores  in  the  sand  is  less  than  in  the  clay  but 
the  pores  are  larger.  Thus  the  air  space  is  increased  in  the  more 
porous  soil.  Besides,  the  available  water  supply  is  much  increased, 
and  soil  food  more  readily  reaches  the  fine  root  hairs.  Spading 
and  cultivating  makes  porous  soil.  Seeds  should  not  be  planted 
when  the  soil  is  saturated  because  of  lack  of  air.) 

Do  you  remember  this  experiment?  (Have  the  three  bottles  on 
the  desk  which  were  located  in  a  cold,  a  normal,  and  a  hot  environ- 
ment.) What  does  this  experiment  teach  us?  How  can  we  plan 
so  that  the  seeds  we  plant  shall  have  warmth? 

(Develop,  by  questioning,  the  following  facts.  The  warmth  of 
soils  may  be  modified  by  altering  the  texture.  Sand  is  warm,  clay 
is  cold.  The  method  of  modification  is  obvious.  Seeds  should 
not  be  planted  during  the  cold  wet  season  nor  during  the  hot  weather. 
Manure  should  not  be  added  to  a  seed  bed  during  the  warm  days. 

The  experiments  to  prove  that  plants  need  food  will  not  be  far 
enough  along  to  direct  conduct.  The  seed  leaves  of  the  first  row 
of  beans  may  be  picked  off.  Follow  this  experiment  and  at  the 
proper  time  point  out  how  much  the  young  plant  depends  on  its 
seed  food. 

Pass  out  the  plates  containing  seeds  germinating  in  the  dark  and 
in  the  light.)     Do  embryo  plants  need  light,  class?    Examine  these 


ROOTS  31 

plants  grown  in  the  dark  and  in  the  Hght.  Do  maturing  plants 
need  sunhght?  Why  does  this  plant  bend  toward  the  window? 
Some  plants  do  not  need  as  much  sunlight  as  others.  The  fern 
does  best  in  a  cool,  damp,  shaded  spot,  while  sunshine  is  essential 
to  most  flowering  plants.  How  does  this  experiment  teach  us  what 
to  do  in  the  gardens  ? 

(To  insure  equal  distribution  of  sunlight  show  the  children  that 
the  rows  should  be  sown  at  right  angles  to  the  path  of  the  sun  across 
the  sky  —  north  and  south.  Teach  that  tall  plants  should  not  be 
grown  so  as  to  shade  others,  that  seeds  should  not  be  started  in 
shady  spots,  that  young  plants  should  be  thinned  out  to  prevent 
shading  us  well  as  for  other  reasons.) 


LESSON  VI 
ROOTS 

Unit  of  Instruction.  —  The  work  of  the  roots. 

General  Topic  Aim.  —  To  show  the  relationship  between  the  roots 
and  the  life  of  the  plant,  to  interest  the  children  further  in  plant  life. 

Specific  Lesson  Aim.  —  To  teach  the  function  of  roots  (1)  to  hold 
the  plant  in  place,  (2)  to  furnish  soil  food. 

The  Lesson 

Roots  Hold  Plants  in  the  Soil.  —  (Ere  this,  in  the  development 
of  «the  experiments  started,  the  children  will  have  come  in  con- 
tact with  many  roots.  Pick  up  a  beaker  or  tumbler  in  which 
seeds  have  developed  roots  and  snip  off  the  roots  below  the  netting 
in  which  the  seeds  are  suspended  in  the  water.)  Children,  what  is 
one  use  of  roots  to  a  plant?  Corn  roots  often  form  a  few  inches 
above  the  soil  to  brace  the  stem. 

The  Root  Furnishes  Soil  Food.  —  What  will  happen  to  this  plant 
in  a  few  days?  Why  will  it  die?  (Have  at  hand  the  apparatus 
set  up  in  Lesson  IV  to  show  that  plants  need  food.  The  plants  will 
be  well  under  way  by  this  time.     Plants  in  the  beaker  containing 


32  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

distilled  water  will  probably  be  suffering  for  lack  of  food.)  I  am 
going  to  drop  this  salt  into  this  beaker  of  water.  What  has  become 
of  the  salt?  A  handful  of  radish  seed  if  thrown  into  a  barrel  of 
apples  would  be  lost  to  view.  Where  would  the  seeds  go?  Yes, 
among  the  apples.  The  particles  of  salt  have  gone  between  the 
water  particles.  The  salt  is  said  to  be  in  solution.  Now  let  us  see 
if  we  can  find  some  of  the  salt  in  this  spoonful  of  water  by  evaporat- 
ing the  water.  What  do  we  see  in  the  spoon?  Taste  it.  Let  us 
test  this  distilled  water  and  the  tap  water  in  a  similar  way  for  sub- 
stances in  solution.  Which  contains  the  substances?  Now,  why 
do  you  think  the  plants  in  the  distilled  water  are  dying?  Yes,  the 
substances  in  solution  are  their  food  and  there  is  no  food  in  dis- 
tilled water.  (Be  sure  the  children  understand  what  distilled  water  is. 
Let  them  distill  some  if  they  have  not  done  so.  See  cut,  page  137, 
Osterhout's  ''  Experiments  with  Plants.")  Plants  can  use  food 
only  that  is  in  solution.  They  need  lime.  What  other  substances 
have  we  found  plants  to  need?  (Examine  experiments  set  up  in 
Lesson  IV.)  Marble  is  cooked  lime  and  may  furnish  food  to  a  plant. 
Bones  may  furnish  lime.  If  I  drop  this  piece  of  marble  or  this  piece 
of  chalk  into  a  beaker  containing  a  plant,  can  the  plant  use  the  lime  ? 
Why  not?    Yes,  it  must  be  in  solution. 

Acids  Turn  Blue  Litmus  Paper  Red.  —  I  have  a  little  acid  in  this 
test  tube.  Watch  what  happens  when  I  put  a  little  on  the  litmus 
paper.  Substances  that  turn  blue  litmus  paper  red  are  acids. 
Observe  what  happens  to  this  piece  of  marble  (or  chalk)  when  I 
drop  it  into  the  acid.  (In  a  short  time  the  marble  disappears. 
The  explanation  of  the  singing  noise  due  to  bubbles  of  gas  bursting, 
the  testing  of  the  gas,  the  cause  of  the  resulting  heat,  may  be  taken 
up  if  you  see  fit.  Any  one  of  these  suggests  an  intensely  interesting 
field  to  children.  One  of  the  excellent  features  of  agricultural  study 
is  the  continuity  of  subjects  offered.  One  study  leads  naturally  to 
another.  Forces  at  work  are  studied  and  the  wholeness  of  the  in- 
dividual and  his  environment  is  ever  evident.  If  you  are  skillful, 
you  will  watch  the  interest  of  your  class  and  let  it  lead  the  children 
into  new  fields.  However,  you  will  avoid  the  danger  illustrated  by 
a  hunter  and  his  dog.     He  may  let  the  dog  run  hither  and  thither 


ROOTS  33 

through  water,  over  hills,  and  in  every  unlikely  place,  due  to  abound- 
ing dog  life,  with  himself  following  blindly,  and  he  will  return  with 
an  empty  bag ;  but  let  him  check  his  dog  as  he  starts  on  a  mere  wild 
chase,  to  let  him  go  when  results  are  liable  to  be  obtained,  and  the 
hunter  will  return  with  birds  in  the  bag.  If  the  class  takes  a  pro- 
ductive scent,  follow,  but  direct  the  chase.) 

Water  Usually  Shows  the  Presence  of  an  Acid.  —  Let  us  test 
this  well  water  for  the  presence  of  an  acid.  You  see  the  litmus  paper 
is  turned  slightly  red.  Suggest  one  way  that  mineral  matter  may  be 
put  in  solution. 

The  Roots  of  Plants  Secrete  an  Acid  to  Put  Mineral  Food  in 
Solution.  —  Notice  that  I  have  put  litmus  paper  in  this  glass  funnel 
filled  with  sand.  I  shall  plant  these  wheat  seeds  next  to  the  litmus 
paper  and  water  the  sand  with  distilled  water.  (Tap  water  usually 
has  an  acid  reaction.)  What  do  you  suppose  will  happen?  We 
shall  see  if  your  theory  is  right.  (As  the  roots  develop  they  will  be 
outlined  in  red  on  the  litmus  paper,  which  is  placed  around  the 
funnel  next  the  glass,  showing  the  presence  of  an  acid.  This  acid  of 
course  helps  to  put  mineral  food  in  solution.)  Children,  this  experi- 
ment will  tell  us  more  about  the  usefulness  of  the  root. 

Nitrogen,  Phosphorus,  Potash,  Lime,  and  the  Other  Foods  may 
be  Added  to  Soils.  —  What  foods  have  we  found  plants  to  need? 
Nitrogen  may  be  added  to  your  gardens  by  working  in  dry  cow's 
manure ;  phosphorus  is  best  added  by  buying  and  applying  a  pre- 
pared fertilizer,  although  ground-up  bone  contains  slowly  available 
phosphorus ;  potash  may  be  added  by  working  in  wood  ashes ;  lime 
is  necessary  to  add  to  some  soils.  However,  our  garden  soil  is  rich, 
so  we  shall  not  add  fertilizers  this  year. 

Products  such  as  wheat,  oats,  and  tobacco  use  a  great  deal  of 
nitrogen  from  the  soil,  and  nitrogen  is  absolutely  essential  to  plant 
growth.  What  will  happen  if  wheat  is  grown  year  after  year  on  the 
same  land?  Clover  does  not  depend  so  much  on  the  nitrogen  of 
the  soil,  but  obtains  it  from  the  air  with  the  help  of  bacteria  (minute 
plants  that  live  in  the  bead-like  swellings  on  its  roots).  These 
bunches  on  the  roots  of  this  clover  are  due  to  millions  of  bacteria. 
If  it  is  true  that  bacteria  help  the  clover  plant  in  getting  nitrogen 
D 


34 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 


from  the  air,  how  shall  we  grow  these  two  types  of  plants,  clover 
and  wheat?  Yes,  we  will  interchange  them.  This  is  called  rota- 
tion of  crops.  Radishes  and  lettuce  need  different  food  from  corn, 
so  in  our  gardens  we  must  rotate  the  crops.     (See  Fig.  7,  which 


WHEAT 

CLOVER 

y^ 

r 

K 

\ 

/ 

t — 1- 

— 

o 

\\ 

t            •  ••  'i     '*  '■  ■  ■  'U"' > " 

^^""^-■'■^-'-..-^^^^                     -  *  ■•  ■' 

=»»                       >v>^ 

••••••:•-;•$:•-•.§••...>■-.•  ._| 

O                     o  SS           > 

>05                                > 

■n 

z 

D 

o 

m 

X 

O 
O 

■0 

02 

x 

Fig.  7. 


shows  the  relative  amounts  of  plant  food  used  by  wheat  and 
clover.) 

Gravity,  Presence  of  Moisture  and  of  Food  Cause  the  Roots  to 
Grow  Downward.  —  Why  do  you  suppose  roots  grow  in  certain 
definite  directions,  usually  downward?  Why  does  this  book  fall 
if  I  withdraw  my  hand?  Gravity  is  the  most  regular  pull  on  the 
roots.  These  two  experiments  I  prepared  some  time  ago.  This 
box  with  a  wire  netting  bottom  contains  sawdust  and  seeds.  The 
box  has  been  resting  with  one  end  raised  several  inches.  (See  cut, 
page  95,  Osterhout^s  ^'  Experiments  with  Plants. '0  Look  at 
the  roots  which  were  pulled  through  the  netting  by  gravity.  What 
are  they  doing?  Why  have  some  partially  turned  back?  Because 
of  the  moisture.  This  experiment  illustrates  the  same  thing. 
This  is  a  chalk  box  filled  with  sand.  Imbedded  in  the  sand  is  a 
porous  pot  filled  with  water.  The  seeds  were  planted  between  the 
glass  front  to  the  box  and  this  black  cloth  (the  cloth  is  used  to  keep 


ROOTS  35 

the  seeds  in  view).  Why  are  the  roots  bending  toward  the  pot? 
(See  cut,  page  96,  Osterhout's  "  Experiments  with  Plants/') 

Surface  Irrigation  Causes  Growth  of  Surface  Roots  and  Later  the 
Plants  Suffer.  —  If  roots  seek  moisture  what  is  the  danger  of  surface 
irrigation?    What  is  the  value  of  deep  furrow  irrigation? 

The  Root  Hairs  Pump  Water  and  Food  into  the  Main  Root.  —  Here 
are  many  radish  seeds  growing  on  this  sand.  Pick  one  out  as  the 
dish  is  passed.  What  do  you  find  clinging  to  the  roots?  What 
holds  the  particles  of  sand?  These  tiny  rootlets  are  called  root 
hairs.  They  are  very  fine  and  slip  between  the  soil  crumbs,  taking 
up  soil  food  which  is  in  solution.  (See  Fig.  8,  p.  13  in  text.) 
(Review  needs  of  plants  as  to  air,  etc.,  and  the  proper  way  to 
insure  same  to  the  plant.)  Without  these  small  root  hairs  the 
main  root  would  have  to  be  at  least  seventy-five  times  as  large 
as  it  is. 

The  Food  Gets  into  the  Root  through  Osmosis.  —  Here  are  three 
carrot  roots  which  I  hollowed  out  yesterday.  Two  have  stood  in 
water  and  one  as  you  see  has  not  been  near  moisture.  In  one  I 
placed  sugar.  Tell  me  what  you  observe.  Yes,  there  is  water  in 
this  one  and  the  sugar  is  in  solution.  Where  did  the  water  come 
from?  How  do  you  know  that  it  came  from  outside  the  root? 
Yes,  our  control  experiments  tell  the  story.  There  is  no  water  in 
either.  What  caused  the  water  to  enter  but  one  root?  Where 
else  have  we  found  sugar  doing  this  work?  What  is  this  process 
called?  Thus  the  roots  furnish  soil  food  to  the  plants,  but  they 
furnish  only  about  3  per  cent  of  the  food  needed  by  plants,  if  we 
do  not  count  water  itself  as  food.  How  and  where  do  the  plants 
get  the  other  97  per  cent  ?  (The  teacher  should  remember  that  these 
figures  pertain  to  the  weight  of  plants  when  thoroughly  dried.) 
Would  you  not  like  to  know  how  the  leaves  work?  Very  well,  we 
•  shall  study  them  at  the  next  lesson. 


36  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

LESSON   VII 
THE   STEM   AND    THE   LEAVES 

Unit  of  Instruction.  —  The  work  of  the  stem  and  the  leaves. 

General  Topic  Aim.  —  Same  as  in  Lesson  VI,  except  the  relation- 
ship is  between  the  stem,  leaves,  and  the  life  of  the  plant. 

Specific  Lesson  Aim.  —  To  teach  the  function  of  stems  and 
leaves. 

The  Lesson 

The  Stem  Conveys  Food,  and  Lifts  Leaves,  Fruit,  and  Seeds  into 
the  Air.  —  At  the  last  lesson  we  learned  that  three  per  cent  of  the 
plant's  food  is  furnished  by  the  roots.  How  does  some  of  this  food 
get  to  the  leaves?  I  shall  cut  open  this  stem  of  a  calla  lily  which 
yesterday  was  placed  in  this  basin  of  colored  water.  What  is  the 
main  work  of  the  stem?  (Teacher  blows  on  a  dandelion  ready  to 
disperse  its  seeds.)  What  are  these  things  flying  around?  •  To  each 
little  parachute  there  is  a  seed.  What  is  the  parachute  for?  Of 
what  gain  is  it  to  the  plant  to  scatter  its  seeds  ?  Can  you  think  of 
another  use  for  the  stem?  Yes,  the  plant  with  the  long  stem  is 
best  prepared  to  scatter  its  seeds,  other  things  being  equal.  What 
else  does  the  stem  lift  into  the  air?  , 

Leaves  Throw  ofif  Moisture  from  the  Plant ;  They  are  Food- 
makers.  —  What  was  the  test  for  acids  ?  One  can  also  test  starch, 
but  in  a  different  way.  Notice  what  happens  to  this  starch  as  I  add 
iodine.  Iodine  always  turns  starch  blue.  Do  you  suppose  there 
is  any  starch  in  this  corn  seed?  Let  us  test.  Yes,  you  see  there 
is.  How  do  you  suppose  it  got  there?  John  thinks  it  came  in  with 
water.  Let  me  add  this  starch  to  water.  Does  it  dissolve?  Then, 
can  it  reach  the  seed  as  starch?  No,  for  starch  is  insoluble.  How- 
ever, starch  is  changed  to  sugar,  which  dissolves  and  is  carried  by  the 
water  where  it  is  needed  and  then  changed  back  to  starch.  Potato 
is  made  of  starch  and  water  mainly.  The  saliva  in  the  mouth  may 
change  the  starch  to  sugar  and  in  that  form  we  use  it.  There  is 
something  in  the  plant  which  does  this  same  thing. 

Starch  is  made  of  Carbon  Dioxide  and  Water.  —  Set  up  the  ap- 


THE  STEM  AND    THE   LEAVES  37 

paratus  as  shown  in  cut.  (Page  186,  Fig.  105,  Osterhout's  "  Experi- 
ments with  Plants.^')  Place  a  Httle  starch  in  the  tube  and  heat 
gently.  Water  collects  on  the  sides  of  the  tube  and  the  lime  water 
in  the  tumbler  turns  milky,  showing  the  presence  of  carbon  dioxide. 
You  may  have  to  make  carbon  dioxide  to  show  the  lime  water  test. 
(Use  marble  and  dilute  hydrochloric  acid.)  Where  does  the  water 
come  from,  Children?  What  gas  is  given  off?  Of  what  is  starch 
made? 

The  Plant  Takes  in  Carbon  Dioxide  and  Water.  —  (Set  up  the 
apparatus  as  illustrated.  Page  75,  Fig.  139  of  text.)  Use  laurel 
or  magnolia  branches.  Fill  the  tube  full  of  water,  make  air-tight, 
and  place  in  the  sun.)  What  causes  the  bubbles?  Where  does  the 
air  come  from  ?  Air  contains  carbon  dioxide.  Lime  water  exposed 
to  the  air  turns  milky,  as  you  remember.  If  starch  is  composed  of 
water  and  carbon  dioxide,  if  the  plant  takes  in  carbon  dioxide  and 
water,  and  if  we  find  starch  in  the  seed,  what  conclusion  may  we 
draw?  Yes,  the  plant  must  put  water  and  carbon  dioxide  togetl^er 
to  make  the  starch  and  the  sugar.  What  is  the  most  likely  place 
for  this  process  to  take  place  ?  The  leaf  unites  water  and  carbon 
dioxide  to  form  elaborated  foods,  e.g.  sugars,  starch,  proteids,  etc. 
I  have  drawn  on  the  board  a  cross  section  of  a  leaf.  The  green 
color  represents  chlorophyll  grains.  These  green  grains  give  the 
color  to  the  leaf.  (See  cut,  page  202,  Fig.  116,  Osterhout's  "  Ex- 
periments with  Plants.")  These  little  grains  are  like  a  steam  engine 
to  the  plant.  The  sunlight  is  the  fire,  and  sets  the  chlorophyll 
particles  to  work,  the  water  and  carbon  dioxide  are  combined  and 
may  be  thought  of  as  the  water,  and  the  starch,  the  final  result, 
is  the  steam. 

Leaf  Surface.  —  Plants  have  many  methods  of  presenting  and 
of  limiting  a  large  leaf  surface.  (Take  the  children  on  a  field  trip  to 
point  out  leaf  arrangements  for  offering  a  large  leaf  surface  to  the 
sunlight.  See  pages  78  and  79  of  the  text.  On  the  same  trip  direct 
their  attention  to  the  methods  of  leaves  to  prevent  loss  of  moisture 
(1)  by  rolling,  (2)  by  hairy  covering,  (3)  by  thick  epidermis,  (4)  by 
wax,  gums,  etc.,  (5)  by  changes  in  position,  etc.  Field  trips  should 
be  made  whenever  possible.) 


38  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

LESSON   VIII 
THE   FLOWER 

Unit  of  Instruction.  —  The  work  of  the  flower. 

General  Topic  Aim.  —  The  same  as  in  Lesson  VII  with  relation- 
ship of  the  flower  to  the  plant. 

Specific  Lesson  Aim.  —  To  teach  the  parts  of  a  flower ;  to  point 
out  the  process  of  fertilization. 

The  Lesson 

The  Final  Aim  of  a  Plant  is  to  Reproduce  Itself.  —  What  happens 
to  most  plants  after  they  flower  and  go  to  seed?  What  happens 
to  an  alfalfa  plant  if  it  is  cut  before  it  goes  to  seed?  What  seems 
to  be  the  main  work  of  a  plant  ?  Would  you  not  like  to  know  how 
plants  reproduce  themselves,  how  new  plants  are  formed? 

The  calyx,  sepals,  corolla  petals,  stamens,  filament,  anther,  pollen, 
pistil,  stigma,  style,  ovary,  and  ovules  are  the  main  parts  of  a  flower. 
(Give  to  each  child  a  specimen  of  a  flower,  carnation,  flax,  geranium, 
or  any  flower  from  a  stone  or  a  pome  fruit  tree,  which  is  typical 
and  has  all  the  parts  listed  above.)  Children,  I  dislike  to  tear 
flowers  to  pieces  because  of  their  beauty  and  fragrance  and  because 
of  the  pleasure  they  bring  to  people,  but  to-day  we  shall  have  to 
sacrifice  these  flowers  in  order  to  learn  how  new  plants  are  made.  On 
the  board  I  have  a  drawing  of  this  flower,  naming  the  different  parts. 
(Fig.  48,  page  92  of  the  text.) 

The  Corolla  is  the  Most  Attractive  Part  of  a  Plant.  —  What  is  the 
most  attractive  part  of  your  flower  ?  What  does  the  corolla  attract  ? 
Your  suggestions  are  good,  but  let  us  wait  a  few  minutes  before 
we  definitely  settle  the  question.  Carefully  remove  the  small  parts 
which  make  the  corolla.  Count  them.  These  are  called  petals. 
Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  number  of  petals  before  we 
can  name  a  flower. 

The  Calyx  and  Sepals.  —  Look  at  the  calyx,  the  green  cup  in 
which  the  corolla  seemed  to  stand.  The  leaf -like  parts  are  the 
sepals.    The  calyx  supports  the  rest  of  the  flower. 


THE  FLOWER  39 

The  Stamens  and  Pistil  and  Their  Parts.  —  I  shall  not  worry 
if  you  forget  the  other  names  I  have  given  you,  but  I  want  you  to 
remember  that  there  are  stamens,  the  male  element,  of  the  plant, 
and  this  is  the  pistil,  the  female  element.  These  parts  are  essential 
to  any  plant,  the  others  are  not.  Examine  them  closely.  Care- 
fully pull  off  a  stamen.  Notice  the  swollen  part  at  the  top.  It  is 
the  anther.  What  is  the  yellow,  powder-like  substance?  The  long 
slender  portion  is  the  filament.  These  new  names  are  on  the  board. 
Carefully  pull  off  all  the  stamens.  How  many  are  there?  The 
number  of  stamens  often  help  in  naming  an  unknown  flower.  What 
is  left?  Yes,  this  is  the  pistil.  The  enlarged  top  is  the  stigma, 
the  swollen  base  is  the  ovary,  and  the  slender  stalk  is  the  style. 
Cut  the  ovary  in  half  with  a  sharp  knife.  What  do  you  see?  The 
tiny  bodies  are  ovules  or  egg  cells  which  will  grow  into  seeds  if  they 
can.  All  of  these  parts  are  drawn  and  labeled  on  the  board.  In 
a  few  minutes  we  shall  take  time  to  copy  them  in  our  books.  Some 
of  you  will  remember  these  new  names,  some  will  forget  them,  but 
I  hope  none  will  forget  the  stamens  and  pistil  and  their  use,  which 
we  are  going  to  learn. 

Pollination.  —  When  the  pistil  of  a  plant  gets  ripe  it  forms  a  shiny 
covering  of  sticky  liquid  on  the  stigma.  If  a  pollen  grain  falls  into 
this  liquid,  it  germinates  and  sends  a  long  tube  down  the  style,  into 
the  ovary,  and  finally  into  an  ovule.  The  two  elements  are  united 
and  in  time  a  seed  develops  which  may  be  planted  to  produce  a  new 
plant.  (Fig.  50,  page  94  of  text.)  If  you  were  to  taste  the  sticky 
stuff,  you  would  probably  find  it  sweet  like  sirup.  You  may  come 
forward  one  at  a  time  to  see  the  pollen  grains  beneath  the  microscope 
which  I  have  germinated  in  sirup.  Notice  the  long,  root-like  tube 
which  normally  penetrates  the  style.  (Make  a  solution  of  fifteen 
grams  of  sugar  in  100  centimeters  of  water.  Put  a  few  drops  of  the 
solution  on  microscopic  slides  and  add  a  few  grains  of  pollen  from 
oak  anthers,  sweet  peas,  or  nasturtiums.  Place  thin  cover  slips  on 
each  end  of  the  slides  to  slightly  raise  the  slides  placed  over  the 
pollen  and  solution.  Examine  every  three  or  four  hours.  To 
prevent  the  sugar  solution  from  drying  up,  put  the  slides  beneath 
a  bell  jar  with  a  moist  sponge  to  keep  the  air  damp.     Microscopic 


40  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 

slides  and  covers  are  not  essential.  Ordinary  saucers  will  do  to  hold 
the  weak  sugar  solution  and  an  inverted  teacup  may  take  the 
place  of  the  bell  jar.  A  strong  magnifying  glass  may  do  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  the  microscope.)  When  you  return  to  your  seat  make 
a  drawing  of  what  you  saw. 

Fertilization.  —  The  union  of  the  two  elements,  the  pollen  grain 
with  the  ovule,  which  I  have  told  you  about,  is  called  fertilization. 
(See  page  92  in  text.)  Children,  it  seems  to  me  this  is  the  most 
wonderful  thing  you  can  learn  about  plants.  Nature's  great  problem 
has  always  been,  how  to  save  life.  The  pollen  grains  are  alive  when 
you  take  them  from  the  stamen,  but  in  a  few  hours  or  days  usually 
they  will  die.  The  ovules  in  the  ovary  are  alive,  but  if  no  pollen 
falls  on  the  stigma,  they  cannot  grow  into  seeds.  Now  you  know 
the  great  secret  of  how  Nature  saves  life  and  at  the  same  time  how 
the  different  kinds  of  plants  are  able  to  propagate  themselves. 

Cross-pollination.  —  Notice  that  the  anthers  in  these  flowers 
are  elevated  over  the  stigma  but  that  there  is  no  sticky  substance 
on  the  stigma.  Examine  these  flowers.  Notice  the  position  of  the 
essential  parts.  Here,  the  stigma  is  above  the  anthers.  Nature 
seems  to  be  trying  to  prevent  something.  What  is  it?  That  is 
just  it,  she  doesn't  want  the  pollen  to  reach  the  stigma  on  the 
same  parent  plant.  She  tries  to  prevent  self-pollination  usually. 
There  are  instances,  however,  in  which  self-poUination  seems  to 
do  no  harm  to  the  succeeding  plants.  In  the  great  majority  of 
cases  continual  self-pollination  would  result  in  less  vigorous  plants 
as  new  ones  were  formed.  Since  the  union  of  a  pollen  grain  and  an 
ovule  is  necessary  for  the  new  seed  pollen  must  travel  from  one 
flower  to  another.  Observe  the  legs  of  this  honeybee.  What  do 
you  see?  You  have  all  noticed  bees  at  work;  what  are  they  do- 
ing continually?  What  might  they  carry  from  flower  to  flower? 
To-morrow  we  will  follow  a  bee  and  see  how  many  flowers  she  visits. 
This  is  what  Nature  desires  and  this  process  of  fertilizing  the  ovules 
of  one  flower  with  the  pollen  of  another  is  called  cross-fertilization. 
This  makes  the  succeeding  plants  stronger.  Many  flowers  have 
peculiar  arrangements  to  insure  cross-fertilization.  (See  cuts,  page 
306,  Osterhout's    "  Experiments    with    Plants.''    Use    footnote.) 


THE  FLOWER  41 

(Take  class  on  a  field  excursion  to  observe  adaptations  to  insure 
fertilization.     Study  the  relation  of  other  animals  to  pollination.) 

The  Nectar  and  the  Bright  Corolla  Attract  Insects.  —  Why  does 
the  bee  visit  so  many  flowers?  Yes,  he  is  after  nectar  and  pollen. 
How  does  she  know  where  the  nectar  and  pollen  are  ?  How  do  you 
know  of  the  bargains  in  a  large  department  store  ?  Having  entered 
the  store  how  may  you  readily  locate  the  drug  department?  How 
does  the  flower  ^^  advertise  "  the  presence  of  nectar?  The  insect 
having  been  attracted  to  the  flower  by  the  bright  corolla,  how  does 
it  locate  the  nectar? 

The  Oneness  of  the  Universe.  — Thus  we  see  how  one  factor 
depends  upon  another.  The  plant  takes  its  food  from  the  soil. 
The  insects  insure  new  plants  by  cross-pollination.  The  new  plants 
feed  animals  and  the  animals  and  plants  are  eaten  by  us.  The 
birds,  as  we  shall  learn,  keep  some  insects  from  destroying  plants. 

Notes 

1.  There  is  little  harm  in  the  cautious  use  of  animal  and  plant 
personification.  The  most  interesting  thing  to  a  child  is  himself. 
This  interest  may  be  grafted  into  the  matter  under  study.  For 
example,  ''  How  do  you  get  your  food?  '^  ''  How  does  the  plant  get 
its  food?  " 

Personification  if  not  carefully  handled  may  lead  to  silly  senti- 
mentality, such  as  is  illustrated  in  the  following  story :  ^'  Why, 
papa,  how  can  you  cut  off  the  limbs  of  that  tree  ?  How  would  you 
like  to  have  your  arms  cut  off  ?  '^  said  a  boy  to  his  father  as  he  was 
pruning  a  lone  fruit  tree.  ^'  What  harm  am  I  doing,  and  who 
suggested  such  things  to  you?  "  asked  the  father.  Replied  the  boy, 
"  Teacher  says  trees  have  life  and  are  like  animals,  and,  if  so,  doesn't 
it  hurt  them  to  cut  off  their  arms?  ''  Avoid  injecting  qualities  into 
a  flower  or  other  plant  which  are  not  truly  its  attributes. 

2.  The  pollination  of  flowers  gives  the  teacher  an  opportunity 
to  point  out  the  relation  between  the  male  and  the  female  elements. 
It  gives  the  teacher  opportunity  to  teach  the  children  something 
about  the  matter  of  sex  which  is  so  carefully  avoided  at  the  expense 


42  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

of  thousands  of  dollars,  untold  misery,  and  many  lives.  Prudish- 
ness  in  this  direction  is  an  expensive  characteristic  of  parents  and 
teachers  alike.  See  Dr.  Ehot's  very  helpful  article  on  "  The  Teach- 
ing of  Sex  Hygiene/'  in  The  Sierra  Educational  News  for  March, 
1911. 

PLANT  PROPAGATION  AND  PLANT  IMPROVEMENT 

Chapters  VIII,  IX,  and  in  ''  Agriculture  for  Schools  of  the 
Pacific  Slope  ^'  should  furnish  most  interesting  suggestions  for  work 
in  home  and  school  gardens.  Properly  presented,  the  topics  of 
the  propagation  and  improvement  of  plants  cannot  fail  to  delight 
boys  and  girls  of  the  early  adolescent  period. 

Suggested  Method  of  Approach.  —  Lesson  VIII  in  this  manual 
or  the  following.  Review  life  histories  of  any  common  seed-bearing 
plants  with  which  the  pupils  are  familiar.  What  is  always  the  end 
or  fulfillment  of  the  plant's  work  ?  For  what  purpose,  then,  has  it 
been  getting  and  storing  up  food?  What  are  seeds?  What  is  the 
relation  of  the  flower  to  the  seed?  Those  who  do  not  know  will 
learn  in  this  chapter  on  ^*  How  Plants  are  Propagated.'' 

Read  first  paragraph  on  page  91.  The  last  sentence  touches  a 
most  important  consideration  in  regulating  our  tree  fruit  crops. 
When  are  the  blossom  buds  formed  on  apple,  peach,  orange,  etc.  ? 
Demonstrate  second  paragraph  on  page  91. 

Flower  and  Fruit.  —  Read  and  have  pupils  name  parts  in  various 
flowers.  They  should  also  perform  the  experiments  on  pages  92 
and  93  of  text.  Other  large  flowers  suitable  for  the  emasculation 
experiment,  page  92,  are  trillium,  single  rose,  single  poppy,  single 
fuchsia,  calla,  canna,  hibiscus,  gladiolus,  nasturtium,  magnolia. 
Some  plants  bear  distinct  male  and  female  flowers,  for  example, 
squash,  corn,  walnut.  In  these  it  is  only  necessary  to  cover  the 
female  flower  in  order  to  prevent  pollination.^ 

On  page  95,  paragraph  1,  the  authors  allude  to  a  very  important 

^See  the  excellent  chapters  on  "  The  Fertilization  of  Flowers  "  and  "  The 
Insect  Pollinators"  in  *' Farm  Friends  and  Farm  Foes"  by  C.  M.  Weed, 
Boston,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 


PLANT  PROPAGATION  AND  IMPROVEMENT       43 

principle  in  tree  fruit  growing  and  one  which  is  not  always  under- 
stood. If  in  a  region  where  apples,  cherries,  plums,  or  peaches  are 
grown,  have  pupils  find  out  what  varieties  bear  well  if  planted  in 
uniform  blocks  of  a  single  variety.  It  is  possible  that  no  such  or- 
chards of  apple  and  cherries  will  be  found  as  it  is  the  usual  custom 
to  mix  or  alternate  varieties  for  the  sake  of  cross-pollination. 

On  page  98  of  text  paragraphs  2,  3,  and  4  touch  on  important  com- 
mercial points  in  fruit  handling  which  are  again  treated  on  pages  231 
and  304.  (See  ''  The  Handling  of  Fruit  for  Transportation  ''  by 
G.  H.  Powell.  Reprint  Agriculture  Yearbook.  Sent  free  by  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C.) 

Testing  seeds  (page  99  of  text)  should  receive  more  attention  than 
is  suggested  here.  The  percentage  of  viability  of  seed  corn,  for 
example,  is  an  important  factor  in  its  improvement.  For  detailed 
direction  see  "  Exercises  in  Elementary  Agriculture,''  by  D.  J. 
Crosby.  (Price  10  cents,  apply  to  Superintendent  of  Documents, 
Washington,  D.C.) 

Do  you  know  of  any  plants  that  do  not  make  seeds?  (Pupils 
may  name  banana,  seedless  orange,  pomelo,  apple,  plum,  etc.) 
How  can  such  plants  be  propagated?  (Pupils  may  suggest  slips 
or  cuttings,   root-sprouts,   budding  and  grafting.) 

Other  Ways  of  Propagating.  —  The  various  experiments  and 
exercises  given  here  comprise  the  most  valuable  garden  work  possible, 
and  every  effort  should  be  made  to  provide  facilities  for  it.  For 
further  details  of  propagation  by  seeds  and  cuttings  see  "  Ele- 
mentary Horticulture,"  by  C.  F.  Palmer,  Los  Angeles  State  Normal 
School,  pages  23  to  56,  50  cents ;  on  all  phases  of  plant  propagation 
consult  "  Manual  of  Gardening,"  by  L.  H.  Bailey  (The  Macmillan 
Company,  $2). 

How  Plants  are  Improved.  —  This  chapter  and  the  one  following 
may  be  used  merely  as  supplementary  reading  with  discussion,  or  they 
may  serve  as  a  starting  point  for  most  interesting  observational  and 
experimental  study.  The  great  fact  of  variation  among  living  things 
— that  no  two  plants  are  exactly  alike  and  that  among  a  large  number 
of  wild  or  cultivated  plants  one  may  find  some  which  differ  a  good 
deal — should  be  impressed  by  means  of  afield  lesson  or  the  examina- 


44  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

tion  of  specimens  collected  by  the  teacher.  The  value  of  such  study 
in  training  the  power  of  observation  is  great.  Then,  if  followed 
by  applying  the  principle  of  selection,  as  explained  on  pages  106  and 
107  of  the  text,  an  alluring  field  will  have  been  thrown  open  to  the 
pupils  and  some  will  enter  and  enjoy  it.  State  Experiment  Station 
(Berkeley)  Circular  no.  46  on  page  26  suggests  experiments  in  plant 
improvement  by  means  of  selection,  the  idea  being  that  such  ex- 
periments should  extend  over  a  period  of  at  least  two  years,  and 
preferably  three  or  four. 

When  pupils  are  trying  to  decide  what  crops  or  plants  to  choose 
for  the  experiment,  lead  them  to  look  for  those  in  which  the  most 
variation  exists,  then  save  seed  from  single  plants  separately  and 
plant  each  lot  of  seed  in  a  plot  by  itself.  Repeat  the  selection  of 
seed  from  single  plants  and  watch  results.  Remember,  it  is  not 
only  the  character  of  the  single  large  flower  or  large  head  of  wheat 
that  determines  what  the  next  crop  will  be  like,  but  the  nature  of 
the  whole  plant  of  which  it  is  a  part.  If  attempting  to  increase  the 
yield  of  potatoes,  it  is  not  enough  to  pick  out  the  largest  or  finest 
tubers  from  a  pile.  The  seed  potatoes  must  be  selected  when  the 
plants  are  being  dug,  so  as  to  take  them  from  the  hills  that  yield  the 
most  tubers.  Potatoes  also  occasionally  '^  set  seed."  Luther  Bur- 
bank  secured  the  Burbank  potato  by  planting  a  seed  that  he  found 
in  a  seed  ball  in  a  field  of  Early  Rose  potatoes.  For  suggestions  on 
improving  California  wheats  teachers  should  read  Experiment 
Station  Bulletin  No.  211,  "  How  to  Improve  California  Wheats," 
by  G.  W.  Shaw,  Berkeley,  Cal. 

It  will  hardly  be  possible  to  attempt  cross-pollination  experi- 
ments in  the  school  garden.  But  there  is  no  reason  why  the  bright 
boy  or  girl  who  wishes  to  try  it  at  home  should  not  be  encouraged 
to  do  so.  When  frost  occurs  or  there  are  epidemics  of  plant  diseases 
such  as  potato  or  tomato  blight,  alfalfa  rust  or  leaf  spot,  wheat  rust  or 
smut,  asparagus  rust,  etc.,  it  would  be  worth  while  to  have  pupils 
look  through  the  damaged  fields  and  mark  plants  that  have  escaped 
injury.  Disease-resistant  or  hardy  varieties  are  sometimes  started 
in  this  way.     (See  page  124  of  text.) 

Poor  Crops  and  How  to  Get  Better  Ones.  —  The  first  part  of 


PLANT  PROPAGATION  AND  IMPROVEMENT       45 

Chapter  XI  (pages  125  to  131)  deals  with  principles  of  the  greatest 
importance  in  the  business  of  making  agriculture  pay.  The  average 
American  farmer  is  neglecting  some  of  these  fundamental  principles. 
That  is  why  the  United  States  produces  so  much  less  to  the  acre 
than  European  countries.  Note  the  comparison  in  the  table  given 
below :  — 

BUSHELS    PER    ACRE  ^ 

Eight  TT^Trm™^ 

Crop  Foreign  U^ted 

Countries  otates 

Wheat        28.42  12.5 

Rye 24.5  12.4 

Oats 43.5  31.9 

Barley        34.9  26.8 

Potatoes 180.23  93.0 

A  few  years  ago  wheat  was  grown  in  many  sections  where  people 
think  it  cannot  be  raised  profitably  now.  It  is  said  that  the  soil  is 
"  worn  out/'  and  that  only  rye  or  barley  will  pay,  because  such  a 
small  yield  of  wheat  per  acre  is  obtained.  It  is  probable  that  the 
farmers  who  say  this  are  neglecting  three  important  principles. 
They  have  usually  been  plowing  shallow  and  to  about  the  same 
depth  (page  127  of  text)  and  have  tried  to  grow  nothing  but  wheat 
year  after  year  (page  126  of  text).  These  two  practices  have  resulted 
in  loss  of  humus  (page  128  of  text)  which  means  less  plant  food  and  a 
soil  that  bakes  and  turns  up  in  clods  when  plowed  instead  of  being 
friable. 

Now  what  should  these  farmers  do?  If  their  soil  is  like  that  of 
most  semiarid  regions  (i.e.  uniform  to  a  depth  of  one  foot  more) 
they  should  plow  deeper  some  years.  Even  this  one  change  in 
practice  will  usually  bring  an  increased  yield.  (Note  warning, 
bottom  of  page  127  of  text.)  Then  if  a  crop  of  field  peas  or  vetch  is 
grown  and  plowed  under  in  the  spring,  the  soil  will  be  greatly  bene- 
fited by  this  addition  of  humus,  as  the  increased  yield  will  show. 
This  is  the  simplest  kind  of  crop  rotation.  (Cf.  Lesson  VI  in  this 
manual.)  But  even  this  may  not  be  considered  practicable  by  the 
man  who  is  ranching  on  an  extensive  scale.     It  is  the  intensive  fanner 

1  From  U.  S.  Census  of  1900. 


46  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

who  is  content  to  handle  a  smaller  tract  of  land,  but  would  handle 
it  scientifically,  who  will  practice  regular  rotation  of  crops  as  ex- 
plained on  pages  125  and  126.  Such  farmers  will,  of  course,  depend 
upon  other  products  beside  wheat  or  the  staple  crop  of  the  region. 
They  may  have  an  alfalfa  field  which  lasts  for  several  years  and 
supplies  hay  and  pasture  for  stock.  (See  '^  Types  of  Farming  in 
the  United  States,''  by  W.  J.  Spillman,  Reprint  from  Yearbook  of 
Agriculture  and  "  Replanning  a  Farm  for  Profit,''  by  Smith  and 
Froley,  Farmers'  Bulletin  370.  Both  sent  free  by  Secretary  of 
Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C.) 

In  all  the  above  considerations,  as  also  in  the  treatment  of  ''drain- 
age "  and  ^'  alkali  soils  "  the  teacher  must  be  guided  by  local  con- 
ditions and  practice  among  the  farmers.  Therefore,  it  is  highly 
important  before  allowing  the  class  to  take  up  this  portion  of  the 
book  that  the  teacher  should  make  a  personal  study  among  the 
farms  of  the  region,  learning  the  principal  types  of  soil  and  how  they 
are  handled  in  growing  grain,  alfalfa,  beets,  beans,  fruit,  or  other 
staple  crops.  Results  of  far-reaching  importance  can  be  secured 
by  planning  the  school  garden  experiments  so  as  to  demonstrate 
to  the  pupils  what  is  right  and  wrong  in  the  culture  of  some  crop 
grown  in  the  locality.  When  in  doubt  as  to  what  is  the  best  practice 
consult  several  successful  farmers,  and  if  still  in  doubt,  write  to  the 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley,  for  information. 

Fertilization  and  Fertilizers.  —  There  may  be  a  good  many  points 
in  connection  with  the  subject  of  fertilizers  about  which  teachers 
are  uncertain  or  at  a  loss  to  know  what  is  best.  But  there  is  one 
proposition  concerning  which  they  need  have  no  fear  of  going  wrong, 
and  that  is  the  importance  of  the  correct  use  of  farmyard  manure. 
This  is  well  set  forth  in  the  text  (Chapter  XII),  and  it  is  our  pur- 
pose merely  to  supplement  it  with  a  few  suggestions.  America  is 
known  as  a  wasteful  nation  and  the  Western  states  are  called  the 
most  profligate  of  natural  resources.  On  the  other  hand,  the  thrifti- 
ness  of  the  Swiss  peasant  is  sometimes  measured  by  the  size  of  the 
manure  pile.  This  is  merely  the  compost  heap  recommended  on 
page  140  of  the  text.  There  should  be  a  place  for  the  compost  heap 
in  connection  with  every  school  garden  and  the  pupils  should  be 
taught  to  turn  all  waste  animal  and  vegetable  matter  into  fertilizers. 


AN  INSECT  LESSON  47 

The  value  of  native  leguminous  plants  as  hosts  for  nitrogen- 
fixing  bacteria  makes  an  interesting  observational  and  experimental 
study.  The  problem-question  would  be  something  like  this  : 
Farmers  now  buy  seed  of  Hairy  Vetch  and  Canadian  Field  Pea  and 
sow  them  for  green  manure  crops.  Have  we  any  wild  legumes 
growing  hereabouts  that  will  do  as  well  or  better?  Have  pupils 
bring  fresh  specimens  of  all  the  native  clovers,  lupines,  vetches,  and 
peas  they  can  find.  Examine  for  number  and  size  of  root  nodules. 
(Page  142  of  text,  Fig.  75.)  Specimens  should  be  carefully  dug  up 
and  the  soil  shaken  or  washed  from  the  roots.  After  deciding  which 
kinds  bear  the  most  nodules  pupils  may  locate  more  plants  and 
gather  the  seed  when  it  is  ripe.  This  can  be  planted  in  a^plot  next 
year  alongside  a  plot  of  Hairy  Vetch  or  Canadian  Field  Pea.  The 
green  crops  should  be  spaded  under  at  blossom  time  and  a  little 
later  a  crop  of  lettuce  may  be  set  out  on  each  and  on  a  third  plot 
that  has  had  no  green  manure  and  no  stable  manure.  Compare 
the  crops  of  lettuce  raised  on  the  three  plots. 

The  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  is  a  question  of  growing  impor- 
tance. The  relative  value  of  nitrates,  phosphates,  and  potash  salts 
and  of  various  combinations  of  these  compounds  may  be  shown 
by  demonstration  or  observation  plots.  By  corresponding  with 
some  fertilizer  company  the  teacher  or  clerk  can  secure  a  few 
pounds  of  each  of  the  three  essential  ingredients  in  commercial 
fertilizers  and  the  teacher  can  lay  off  a  series  of  plots,  have  the  class 
spade  in  the  fertilizer,  and  plant  some  staple  crop.  If  the  soil  is 
heavy  clay  or  adobe,  an  experiment  in  liming  may  well  be  made. 
Try  different  quantities  on  the  same  sized  plots  so  as  to  determine 
the  amount  per  square  rod  that  will  bring  your  soil  into  best  tilth. 


LESSON  IX 

AN    INSECT    LESSON 

Unit  of  Instruction.  —  The  cabbage  aphis. 

General   Topic  Aim.  —  To  interest  the  children  in  insect  life 
through  the  cabbage  aphis,  since  insects  make  one  element  in  their 


48  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

environment  which  must  be  reckoned  with;   to  teach  the  relation 
between  insect  life  and  other  life. 

Specific  Lesson  Aim.  —  To  teach  the  children  to  recognize  the 
cabbage  aphis ;  to  teach  its  economic  status ;  to  determine  a  method 
of  prevention  and  control. 

Children's  Aim.  —  ^' We  are  going  to  try  to  save  our  cabbages  by 
spraying  to  kill  the  aphides." 

Lesson  1.  —  Development  of  Lesson. 

The  Business  of  the  Aphis  and  All  Insect  Life.  —  Children,  what  is 
your  father's  business?  Very  good.  Why  does  your  father  sell 
groceries,  May  ?  What  does  he  want  with  the  money  ?  Then  you 
believe  that  the  business  of  your  father  is  to  obtain  food  for  himself, 
you,  and  the  rest  of  his  family  ?  Look  at  the  aphides  closely.  What 
is  the  main  business  of  the  aphides?  What  are  they  doing?  What 
is  their  food  ? 

Insects  Known  by  Their  Work.  —  Look  at  your  individual  plants 
closely  and  compare  with  these  plants  that  are  unaffected.  What 
differences  do  you  notice?  Look  at  these  other  cabbage  leaves 
free  from  aphides.  Did  insects  similar  to  the  aphides  attack  these  ? 
How  do  you  know,  Fred?  "  Because  the  aphides  suck  their  food 
while  these  cabbage  leaves  have  been  eaten." 

Manner  of  Getting  Food  and  Study  of  Mouth  Parts.  —  How  are 
they  getting  food  from  the  cabbage  leaves?  You  may  each  take 
one  of  the  aphides.  With  these  magnifying  glasses  look  closely  at 
the  mouth  parts.  What  do  you  find  ?  What  other  insect  that  has 
such  a  piercing  tube  for  part  of  its  mouth  bothers  us  in  summer 
evenings  ?  How  does  the  mosquito  get  its  food?  Now  tell  me  how 
the  aphides  are  getting  the  food  from  the  plants.  You  may  each 
take  one  of  these  hectograph  copies  showing  an  aphis  at  work. 

Method  of  Control  Determined  by  the  Mouth  Parts.  —  Knowing 
how  these  insects  get  their  food,  how  shall  we  kill  them?  It  would 
be  useless  to  put  poison  on  the  leaves  as  Albert  has  explained,  and 
John  has  told  us  that  poison  placed  in  the  sap  would  kill  the  trees. 
If  we  desired  to  kill  the  mosquitoes,  it  would  be  useless  to  put  poison 
on  our  hands  and  decidedly  dangerous  to  poison  our  blood,  so  we 
kill  them  with  direct  slapping  or  direct  contact. 


AN  INSECT  LESSON  49 

Spraying.  —  We  shall  kill  these  aphides  by  "  striking "  or 
"  slapping  "  them  directly  with  kerosene  and  water.  You  have 
probably  watched  your  father  put  kerosene  on  a  rusty  bolt  to  cut 
the  rust  in  order  to  loosen  the  nut,  and  you  know  how  kerosene 
must  penetrate  the  smallest  places.  Insects  breathe,  as  Fannie 
has  told  us,  through  spiracles,  or  little  openings,  in  their  bodies. 
The  kerosene  suffocates  the  insects. 

Making  the  Spray.  —  As  you  have  noticed,  I  have  mixed  one 
part  of  kerosene  to  fifteen  of  water.  Let  us  drop  some  upon  these 
aphides.  They  do  not  like  it.  Now  watch  while  I  spray  my  cab- 
bages, then  you  may  spray  yours.  Be  careful  in  spraying  not  to 
waste  the  spray.  Why?  Kerosene  is  not  only  expensive  but  too 
much  of  it  will  kill  young  trees.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  spray  on 
bright  days.     Why? 

Succeeding  Lessons 

Lesson  2.  —  Increase  and  dispersal  of  the  aphides. 

Lesson  3.  —  Adaptations,  enemies,  protective  coloration,  etc. 

Lesson  4.  —  Comparison  of  other  aphides  and  insects  to  the  type. 

Lesson  5.  —  A  visit  to  surrounding  gardens  in  order  to  compare 
the  gardener's  methods  with  those  of  the  class.  Estimate  the 
amount  of  damage  done  by  the  insects. 

Notes 

This  lesson,  or  one  similar  to  it,  should  be  taken  up  only  as  the 
aphides  begin  to  attack  the  cabbages. 

The  immediate  aim  is  control,  so  the  steps  in  the  lesson  should  be 
determined  by  this  fact.  It  is  often  necegsary,  at  the  start,  to  study 
the  life  history  of  an  insect  in  order  to  determine  the  vul4|pj;able 
spot.  If  this  is  known,  the  steps  in  the  lesson  should- be  (1)  study 
of  mouth  parts,  (2)  method  of  control,  (3)  a;^ication  of  the 
methods,    (4)  prevention. 

In  following  the  life  history  of  an  insect  or  an  animal  such  as  the 
frog,  by  all  means  have  the  history  under  way  in  the  schoolroom. 
An  ordinary  lamp  chimney  closed  at  the  top  with  mosquito  netting 


50  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

and  placed  in  a  plant  pot  filled  with  soil  makes  an  excellent  breeding 
place  for  insects.     Do  not  hurry  life-history  study. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  suggest  to  teachers  the  continual  use  of 
specimens,  pictures,  hectograph  drawings,  etc.,  in  presenting  these 
lessons. 

Under  natural  checks  for  insect  hfe  the  teacher  and  the  class  are 
naturally  brought  in  touch  with  the  birds.  The  conservation  of  bird 
life  is  a  vital  subject  to  our  future  welfare.  To  encourage  bird 
protection,  the  "  sky  gems  "  should  receive  careful  study.  The 
study  should  be  made  through  field  excursions. 

CHILDREN  AND   HEALTH 

The  child  is  the  index  of  the  man.  Upon  the  children  rests  the 
future  of  our  country.  One  great  birthright  left  to  the  children  is 
that  of  good  health.  The  school  and  the  home  should  teach  the 
child  how  to  live  correctly.  They  should  conserve  the  clear  eyes 
and  the  red  cheeks. 

Do  children  need  help  as  to  hygienic  conditions?  Tables  of 
statistics  answer  in  the  affirmative  and  these  tables  are  of  value  in 
giving  the  index  as  to  the  health  of  the  children. 

Out  of  442,287  children  examined  for  defective  vision,  100,000 
were  defective.  Out  of  458,965  children  examined,  29,350  had 
defective  hearing,  4518  out  of  26,534  had  adenoids. 

Defective  eyes,  defective  ears,  adenoids,  and  other  defects,  each 
has  a  special  effect  and  they  all  have  a  common  effect  on  the  de- 
veloping child.  Children  are  not  getting  a  square  deal.  The  child 
with  adenoids,  with  defective  eyes,  or  defective  ears  is  scolded, 
punished,  and  ridiculed  as  an  ignoramus  until  a  sweet  disposition 
is  soured,  the  faith  of  the  child-heart  is  blighted,  and  another  charac- 
ter is  twisted.  The  school,  and  in  many  cases  the  home,  with  their 
steam-roller  method,  produce  another  candidate  for  the  juvenile 
court.  The  great  majority  of  children  who  pass  through  the 
juvenile  court  are  physically  defective. 

The  home  and  the  school  should  work  hand  in  hand  in  this  matter. 
Just  as  the  home  in  so  many  cases  is  failing  to  give  the  child  its 


HYGIENE  51 

health  right,  so  is  the  school.  We  have  much  reason  to  be  optimistic, 
for  there  is  a  tendency  in  the  right  direction  for  better  health  con- 
ditions in  the  school.  Medical  supervisors  are  in  charge  in  many 
cities.  However,  the  work  of  these  men  should  not  be  so  much  to 
tell  the  boy  that  his  hearing  is  defective  as  to  prevent  him  from 
becoming  thus  deficient.  To  work  not  so  much  with  the  abnormal 
child  as  to  prevent  the  abnormal  child.  In  other  words,  teach  the 
parents  at  home  and  the  children  at  school  how  to  get  fresh  air,  how 
to  eat  and  bathe  correctly,  how  to  prevent  the  hundred  and  one  minor 
ailments  which  twist  the  otherwise  normal  development.  If  one 
could  but  look  into  the  mouths  of  hundreds  of  children,  it  would 
open  one's  eyes  to  the  inefficiency  that  we  sow  as  a  race  between 
the  ages  of  one  and  fifteen.  We  would  not  treat  colts  as  we  do 
children.  We  would  not  turn  colts  into  an  alfalfa  patch,  yet  we  let 
children  roam  as  they  please  from  cheap  candy  to  coffee  and  hot 
cakes,  from  the  community  drinking  cup  to  public  places  laden  with 
poisonous  air.  Habits  are  thus  formed  which  produce  not  only 
uncleanly  mouths  but  place  a  continuous  strain  upon  the  system, 
paid  for  later  in  terms  of  dull  eyes,  white  cheeks,  and  low  morals. 

It  is  because  of  the  urgent  need  that  teachers  should  know  how 
to  improve  their  pupils'  health  that  the  following  suggestions  are 
included  in  this  manual. 

LESSON  X 
HYGIENE 

In  dealing  with  children  one  must  (1)  make  them  feel  the  need 
of  the  work,  (2)  use  active,  living  material,  (3)  give  opportunity  for 
motor  expression. 

Introduce  the  hygienic  work  with  bacteria  in  mass  effect,  avoid- 
ing the  use  of  the  microscope. 

Bring  a  mushroom  to  class  and  study  its  general  make-up.  Draw 
attention  to  the  spores,  countless  in  number.  Blow  some  of  the 
spores  into  space,  noting  their  disappearance.  In  two  dishes,  one 
exposed  to  the  air,  place  moist  bread.    Observe  from  day  to  day. 


52  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

This  demonstration  draws  the  attention  of  the  children  to  the  fact 
that  the  atmosphere  is  filled  with  minute  germs. 

The  Hygiene  of  the  Individual.  —  Prepare  gelatin  cultures  as 
follows :  To  an  eight-ounce  bottle  three  fourths  full  of  water  add 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  ordinary  cooking  gelatin  and  a  drop  or  two 
of  strained  honey.  Place  the  bottle  in  boiling  water  until  all  solids 
are  in  solution.  Add  with  a  stirring  rod  just  enough  ammonia  to 
make  the  solution  basic  in  reaction  (turns  red  litmus  paper  blue). 

1.  Sterilize  test  tubes,  bottles,  petri  dishes,  etc.,  which  are  to 
hold  the  cultures.  A  sterilizer  may  be  made  cheaply  as  follows : 
Place  in  the  bottom  of  an  ordinary  tin  pail,  wire  netting  with  the 
corners  bent  down  so  as  to  raise  the  netting  two  or  three  inches  from 
the  bottom.  Add  water  to  the  depth  of  one  and  one  half  to  two 
inches.  Place  apparatus  to  be  sterilized  on  this  netting  in  the  pail, 
cover,  and  set  over  a  flame.  Sterilize  for  thirty  minutes.  Pour 
the  gelatin  into  the  test  tubes,  etc.,  and  sterilize.  To  be  absolutely 
sure  of  pure  cultures  sterilize  for  thirty  minutes  on  three  different 
days.  Bacteria  in  the  spore  stage  are  very  resistant.  Let  the 
children  do  most  of  this  work.  Let  the  culture  medium  cool. 
Sterilize  a  knitting  needle  or  a  hairpin  by  holding  over  a  flame, 
rub  across  the  teeth,  remove  the  cotton  plug  of  a  tube,  stab  quickly 
into  the  test  tube  containing  the  gelatin  medium,  withdraw,  and 
plug  again  with  cotton.  (See  page  251  in  text.)  In  a  similar  man- 
ner make  "  stab  '^  cultures  from  the  finger  nails,  from  different 
places  on  the  skin,  from  lead  pencils  and  the  many  other  instru- 
ments that  are  put  into  the  mouth. 

Press  the  lips  to  a  gelatin  medium  in  a  petri  dish,  cover,  and  set 
aside.  Touch  the  fingers  to  a  similar  preparation,  wash  the  fingers, 
and  again  touch  a  gelatin  preparation. 

In  a  few  days  the  culture  medium  will  be  filled  with  bacterial 
growth,  impressing  upon  the  children  the  need  of  cleanliness  and 
other  hygienic  measures.  The  cultures  from  the  teeth  and  lips,  lead 
pencils,  etc.,  point  the  way  to  mouth  hygiene.  Too  much  of  one's 
environment  goes  into  the  mouth.  Children  are  eating  too  many 
carbohydrates,  too  many  soft  foods.  These  ferment  in  the  stomach 
and  keep  the  teeth  bathed  in  an  acid  environment,  producing  early 


HYGIENE  53 

decay.     Forty-five  children  out  of  sixty  questioned  had  eaten  hot 
cakes,  sirup,  and  mush  for  breakfast. 

The  cultures  made  from  the  fingers  point  to  cleanliness  of  the  skin, 
etc. 

2.  Add  a  little  saliva  and  water  to  a  test  tube  containing  a  piece 
of  boiled  potato  the  size  of  the  thumb  nail.  Substitute  in  another 
test  tube  the  same  amount  of  potato  carefully  broken  up.  Keep 
both  tubes  at  body  temperature  (95  to  100  degrees  Fahrenheit). 
In  a  few  hours  test  both  for  sugar.  For  this  purpose  use  Fehling's 
Solution,  which  you  can  buy  from  a  druggist.  It  should  be  freshly 
made  up.  Pour  off  the  water  and  saliva,  add  a  little  of  the  Fehling^s 
Solution,  and  heat  for  two  or  three  minutes ;  then  set  aside.  A 
reddish  sediment  indicates  the  presence  of  sugar.  It  may  not  ap- 
pear at  once. 

The  main  reason  for  careful  mastication  is  to  present  a  large  sur- 
face for  the  action  of  diastase  (the  active  principle  in  saliva),  in 
changing  starch  to  sugar. 

3.  Prepare  a  flat  bottle  with  gelatin  culture  medium.  Catch 
a  house  fly  and  let  it  walk  about  on  the  culture  medium.  Observe 
results  from  day  to  day.  Such  a  demonstration  is  more  eloquent 
than  days  of  talking  about  the  harmfulness  of  the  house  fly. 
Avoid  letting  air  into  the  bottle.     (See  page  263  in  text.) 

Bacteria  are  so  closely  related  to  the  health  and  happiness  of  the 
individual  that  each  class  should  spend  at  least  two  weeks  of  its 
school  life  in  their  study. 

4.  In  a  previous  lesson  you  developed  the  needs  of  animals 
and  hinted  to  the  class  that  you  wished  to  find  if  the  children  were 
getting  air,  food,  sunshine,  and  warmth  in  a  hygienic  manner. 
Question  the  children  as  to  the  ventilation  of  their  sleeping  rooms 
at  night  and  ask  yourself  if  the  schoolroom  is  properly  ventilated. 
Very  likely  the  air  cultures  answer  this  question  in  the  negative. 
Show  the  children  that  oxidation  in  the  animal  means  life.  Answers 
to  questions  relative  to  food  consumption  invariably  indicate  im- 
proper food.     Carbohydrates  and  soft  foods  predominate  in  the  diet. 

The  following  (Questions  properly  answered  will  index  the  life 
and  environment  of  the  children. 


54  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

Questions 

1.  Do  you  sleep  on  a  feather  bed  or  a  mattress?  2.  Do  you  sleep 
between  blankets  or  sheets?  3.  How  many  windows  in  the  bed- 
room are  open  each  night  and  how  far  open?  4.  Do  you  sleep  in 
your  undergarments?     5.   Do  you  take  a  cold  bath  in  the  morning? 

6.  Do  you  lie  abed  in  the  morning,  or  rise  at  an  early  hour  regularly  ? 

7.  Do  you  rinse  out  your  mouth,  clean  your  teeth,  and  drink  a 
good  deal  of  water  in  the  morning?  8.  What  do  you  eat  for  break- 
fast? What  do  you  drink?  How  long  does  it  take  you  to  eat  your 
breakfast?  9.  Do  you  play  games  outside  with  the  other  children? 
10.  Is  your  schoolroom  well  ventilated?  11.  Does  your  teacher 
open  the  windows  at  recess?  12.  Is  a  dry  broom  used  in  sweeping 
the  schoolroom?  13.  Are  the  desks  dusted  with  a  dry  duster? 
14.  Is  your  desk  too  large  or  too  small  for  you?  15.  Does  enough 
light  fall  upon  your  desk?  16.  Where  do  you  get  drinking  water 
at  school  and  how? 

These  questions  are  suggestive  only.  For  a  more  complete  set  see 
Dr.  Allen's  "  Civics  and  Health,"  or  Dr.  Hoag's  "  Health  Index  of 
Children.'' 

Be  sure  that  the  studies  of  bacterial  cultures  are  applied  in  the 
direction  of  conduct. 

LESSON  XI 
STUDY   OF  THE   WEATHER 

Unit  of  Instruction.  —  The  weather. 

General  Topic  Aims.  —  The  relationship  existing  between  the 
weather  and  plant  and  animal  life;  the  value  of  the  system  of 
weather  bureaus. 

Specific  Lesson  Aims.  —  (These  aims  are  to  be  realized  in  a  series 
of  lessons.)  (1)  To  make  and  to  collect  apparatus  for  the  bureau 
(Write  to  Washington,  D.C.,  for  "  The  Weather  Bureau  and  the 
Public  Schools  "  by  J.  R.  Weeks  —  reprint  of  year  1907 ;  also 
ask  the  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College,  Manhattan,  Kansas, 
for  a  leaflet  on  "  Some  Weather  Studies  "  issued  in  September,  1909), 


STUDY  OF  THE   WEATHER  55 

(2)  to  elect  the  weather  prophet,  (3)  to  record  weather  changes  and 
condition  of  plant  and  animal  life,  (4)  to  study  the  forces  working 
upon  the  different  pieces  of  apparatus  (the  weather  bureau  may 
unify  a  general  elementary  science  course  for  a  term's  work  in 
one  of  the  higher  grades),  (5)  to  teach  that  since  man  cannot  alter 
the  climate  of  his  locality  his  success  depends  upon  seed  selection, 
crop  rotation,  and  conservation  of  moisture. 

Organize  a  Weather  Bureau.  —  Select  a  spot  near  the  gardens 
and  erect  a  shelter  to  hold  a  barometer,  a  maximum  and  minimum 
thermometer,  a  magnetic  needle,  hygrometer,  and  a  centigrade 
thermometer.  At  one  side  arrange  a  place  for  a  rain  gauge.  Upon 
the  small  protecting  roof  place  a  windmill  and  wind  vane  (made  by 
the  boys).  Much  of  the  above  apparatus  can  be  made  by  the  chil- 
dren.    Correspond  with  the  State  Weather  Observer  for  suggestions. 

After  the  apparatus  is  in  place,  ask  the  State  Observer  for  a  set 
of  observational  blanks  and  request  that  the  daily  weather  chart  be 
mailed  to  you.  In  addition  to  the  regular  readings  desired  by  the 
state,  have  the  children  keep  individual  and  class  charts,  noting 
the  following  points:  Dates,  clear  or  cloudy,  kinds  of  clouds, 
amount  of  precipitation,  air  pressure,  temperature  of  atmosphere 
and  soil,  presence  of  dew  or  frost,  direction  of  wind. 

Have  the  children  elect  a  weather  prophet  from  their  number 
whose  duty  is  to  predict  the  approaching  changes  in  the  weather. 
The  predictions  should  be  posted  in  the  schoolroom  daily.  The 
girls  will  enjoy  making  the  flags.  See  bulletin  "  Some  Weather 
Studies. '^  By  studying  the  relation  between  clouds,  pressure  of 
air,  winds,  and  by  observing  the  state  weather  chart  received 
daily,  the  children  will  soon  become  quite  expert  in  determining 
approaching  changes. 

A  careful  study  of  one  month's  readings  will  point  out  the  relations 
that  winds,  clouds,  etc.,  bear  to  the  weather  conditions  and  to  each 
other.  It  will  also  point  out  the  relation  of  weather  phenomena 
to  plant  life,  thus  indicating  the  value  of  weather  study  as  typified 
in  the  United  States  weather  bureaus. 

Much  time  should  be  spent  in  the  study  of  the  forces  that  are 
grouped  around  and  act  upon  the  apparatus  of  the  school  bureau. 


56  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

Point  out  how  man  has  utili-zed  these  forces  in  working  out  his  own 
comfort.  He  has  used  the  wind  to  pump  his  water,  pointed  out  by 
the  small  windmill ;  magnetism  to  determine  direction,  illustrated 
by  the  needle;  pressure  of  air,  change  of  temperature,  etc.,  to  save 
his  fruit.  Man's  progress  is  determined  by  this  ability  to  utilize 
Nature's  forces  in  manufacturing  power  to  reduce  his  own  friction 
in  living. 

In  the  study  of  heat  (thermometer),  pressure  of  air  (barometer) 
and  the  other  forces  represented,  remember  that  isolation  of  any 
subject  means  wasted  energy.  These  forces  should  be  studied  to 
the  end  of  their  use  in  determining  future  conduct.  That  heat 
is  poorly  conducted  by  wool,  as  an  isolated  fact,  means  nothing,  but 
if  knowledge  of  the  fact  guides  one  in  the  selection  of  clothing,  it 
means  much. 

Study  magnetism  in  connection  with  the  magnetic  needle,  the 
relation  of  evaporation  and  moisture  content  to  temperature,  illus- 
trated by  the  hygrometer.  Avoid  detailed  theoretical  study; 
show  enough  of  the  properties  of  each  force  that  the  children  may 
understand  its  nature,  then  demonstrate  how  man  has  worked  each 
force  into  his  welfare  through  machines. 

Note. — A  hygrometer  may  be  made  by  suspending  a  cloth  in  a 
cobalt  solution. 


APPENDIX  A 


Outline  of  Agricultural  Nature-Study  by  Groups^ 
Group  I,  Grades  1  and  2 


Character  of  Instruction 

Observation,  identification, 
oral  description;  for  general 
knowledge  of  immediate  en- 
vironment :  the  weather,  wild 
and  cultivated  plants  and  trees, 
insects,  earthworms,  wild  and 
domestic  animals,  common  birds 
and  reptiles ;  seeds,  how  they 
sprout ;  seed  distribution ;  plants, 
how  they  grow;  bulbs  grown 
in  water. 


Garden  Phase 

School  garden,  individual  plots. 
Plant  and  grow  common,  hardy, 
large-seeded  vegetables,  such 
as  radishes,  dwarf  peas,  beets, 
onions  from  sets,  and  one  or 
two  quick-growing  flowers,  such 
as  dwarf  nasturtiums,  dwarf 
sweet  peas,  four-o'clocks.  Dem- 
onstration lessons  in  plant- 
ing and  cultivating  given  by 
teacher. 


Group  II,  Grades  3  to  5 


Character  of  Instruction 

Observation  and  comparison, 
practice  in  identification,  oral 
and  written  description.  Add  to 
general  knowledge  and  specialize 
in  correlation  with  home  geog- 
raphy. Observe  wild  and  culti- 
vated plants  and  trees,  ''dry- 
weather"  plants,  pond  plants, 
economic  plants  and  their  uses; 
mammals,  birds,  fish,  the  mos- 
quito and  other  economic  in- 
sects;   physical    nature    study. 


Garden  Phase 

School  garden,  individual  plots, 
and  home  garden. 

(a)  Plant  and  grow  vegetables 
and  flowers  requiring  more  skill 
than  those  recommended  for 
Group  I.  (b)  Plant  and  grow 
typical  crop  plants  of  the  region, 
giving  some  attention  to  varieties, 
harvesting,  and  methods  of  hand- 
ling raw  materials,  (c)  Begin  ex- 
perimental study  of  tree  growing 
and  plant    propagation  in   the 

^Adapted  from  "Suggestions  for  Garden  Work  in  California    Schools," 
Circular  46,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Berkeley,  Cal. 

57 


58 


APPENDIX  A 


Begin  organization  of  school  or 
class  "Nature-study  clubs"  in 
the  fifth  grade,  making  a  "club 
meeting"  of  the  nature-study 
period.  Have  reports  on  the 
experiments  in  tree  growing  and 
plant  propagation  in  home  and 
school  gardens,  and  any  other 
nature-study  topics. 


fifth  grade,  {d)  Encourage  the 
collection  of  native  plants, 
shrubs,  and  trees  for  the  school 
garden  (community  plot)  or 
home  gardens.  This  phase  de- 
serves more  attention.  Do  not 
hesitate  because  you  do  not 
know  botanical  names.  Get  ac- 
quainted with  the  plants  and  use 
common  names. 


Group  III,  Grades  6  to  8 


Character  of  Instruction 

Observation,  comparison,  judg- 
ment. Study  objects,  as  above, 
within  and  beyond  horizon  of 
children's  observation ;  intro- 
duce bulletins,  textbooks,  and 
reference-books  as  sources  of  in- 
formation, particularly  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

For  the  sixth  grade,  U.  S.  D.  A. 
bulletins  and  circulars  on  plant 
propagation,  plant  improvement, 
and  forestry. 

For  the  seventh  grade,  texts 
and  bulletins  on  agriculture  and 
horticulture. 

For  the  eighth  grade,  texts, 
bulletins,  and  laboratory  work 
on  crop  and  animal  production, 
farm  machinery  and  buildings. 

Emphasize  outdoor  and  indoor 
experimental  work  in  sixth  and 
seventh  grades. 

The  comparative  study  of  root 
systems  of  crop  plants  may  be 
made  a  valuable  indoor  adjunct 


Garden  Phase 

School  and  home  gardens. 

Sixth  Grade:  (a)  Continue 
study  of  plant  propagation,  both 
in  individual  plots  and  the  com- 
munity nursery,  where  seedlings 
and  cuttings  for  budding  and 
grafting  should  have  been  started 
the  previous  year.  (6)  Encour- 
age pupils  to  experiment  at  home 
and  to  make  observations  and 
reports  in  connection  with  their 
indoor  study  or  club  meetings. 
Conduct  excursions.  (c)  Re- 
serve "problem  plots"  for  the 
purpose  of  settling  disputed 
questions  or  giving  demonstra- 
tions. Or  {d)  crop  improve- 
ment through  seed  selection  may 
be  the  chief  line  of  study  for  the 
year  with  plant  propagation  and 
forestry  subordinate. 

Seventh  Grade :  (a)  Applica- 
tion of  indoor  experimental  study 
in  soils  and  plant  growth  to 
problems  in  irrigation,  cultivar' 


APPENDIX  B 


59 


of   the   outdoor  work  in   these 
grades. 

Note.  —  It  will  be  recognized 
that  the  work  suggested  for 
grammar  grades  is  not  all  ob- 
servational study.  But  it  is  in- 
tended that  nature-study  ideals 
shall  obtain  and  that  the  nature- 
study  method  shall  be  used  as 
far  as  practicable.  The  value 
of  experimental  work,  doing,  see- 
ing, and  inferring  by  the  pupils 
themselves,  cannot  be  overem- 
phasized, providing  the  course 
of  experiments  is  well  planned 
and  consistently  carried  out. 


tion,  fertilizing,  crop  rotation, 
seed  and  soil  inoculation.  (6) 
Continue  or  begin  work  in  crop 
improvement  or  amelioration  of 
some  wild  plant,  (c)  Encourage 
pupils  to  grow  crops  and  domes- 
tic animals  at  home,  keeping 
account  of  labor,  fertilizers, 
feed,  gross  and  net  returns. 

Eighth  Grade :  Experimental 
work  of  Seventh  Grade  con- 
tinued. If  the  study  of  crop  or 
plant  improvement  has  been 
successfully  introduced,  pupils 
of  this  grade  will  wish  to  continue 
their  experiments  at  home. 


APPENDIX  B 

Plants  that   Thrive  with   Comparatively  Large  Amounts  of  Water  * 
Vegetables 


Name  Time  to  plant 

Artichoke  —  Seeds,  Jan.-Feb.  (in  boxes) 
Artichoke  —  Roots,  Nov.-Mar.       .     .     . 
Asparagus  —  Seeds,  Feb. -Mar.  (in  beds) 

Asparagus  —  Roots,  March 

Beans  (string)  —  Feb. -Apr.  after  frost    . 

Beets  —  Aug.-Oct.,  Jan.-Apr 

Broccoli  —  Same  as  spring  or  winter  cabbage. 
Brussels  sprouts  —  Same  as  last. 
Cabbage  —  For  early  spring,  Sept.-Oct. 
Cabbage  —  For  summer  and  fall,  Feb  .-Mar. 

Cabbage  —  For  winter,  June- Aug 4-5  months 

Cauliflower  —  Same  as  spring  and  winter  cabbage. 

Carrot  —  Any  month  except  June  and  July       .     4-6  months 

Celery  —  Feb.-Apr.  (in  boxes) 6-8  months 

^From  "  Suggestions  for  Garden  Work  in  California  Schools,"  Circular  46, 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Berkeley,  Cal. 


How  long  to  grow 
1  year 
1  year 
2-3  years 
9-12  months 
2-3  months 
3-5  months 


3-7  months 
3-4  months 


60  APPENDIX  B 

Vegetables  {Continued) 

Name  Time  to  plant  How  long  to  grow 

Celeriac  —  Same  as  celery. 
Chard  —  Same  as  beet. 

Chive  (Cive)  —  Same  as  onion ;  sets  or  clumps. 

Corn  (sweet)  —  Mar.-June,  Aug.-Sept.   .     .     .  2-3  months 
Collards  —  Same  as  summer  cabbage. 

Corn-salad  —  Aug.-Oct.,  Jan.-Apr 6-8  months 

Cucumber  —  Mar  .-May 2  months 

Endive  —  Aug.-Apr 6-8  months 

Garlic  —  Nov.-Mar.,  sets 6-8  months 

Kale  (Borecole)  —  Aug.-May 4-6  months 

Kohlrabi  —  Aug.-Nov.,  Jan.-Apr 4  months 

Leek  —  Sept.-May 6  months 

Lettuce  —  Aug.-May 4-6  weeks 

Okra  (Gumbo)  —  Mar.-May 2-3  months 

Onion  —  Seed,  Feb.-May,  Aug.-Nov.     .     .     .  9-12  months 

Onion  —  Sets,  Oct.-Apr 2-3  months 

Parsley  —  Aug.-May 2  months 

Parsnip  —  Aug.-Nov.,  Feb. -Apr 8-16  months 

Peas  —  Every  month 2-5  months 

Peppergrass  (Cress)  —  Aug.-May 4-6  weeks 

Potato,  Irish  —  Plants,  Feb.-May,  Aug.-Sept.  2-4  months 

Potato,  Sweet  —  Plants,  Apr.-May     ....  3-4  months 

Radish  —  Every  month 1-2  months 

Radish  (winter)  —  Aug.-Sept 4  months 

Rhubarb  —  Plants,  Nov.-Apr 1  year 

Salsify  —  Feb. -Apr 6-8  months 

Spinach  —  Every  month 6-10  weeks 

Sweet  Potato  —  Plants,  Apr.-June      ....  4-6  months 

Tomato —  Seeds,  Feb.-Apr 3-5  months 

Tomato  —  Plants,  Mar.-May 3-5  months 

Turnips  —  Aug.-Nov.,  Feb.-Apr 3  months 

Annual  Flowers 
Name                     Time  to  plant  How  long  to  grow 
Aster  —  Jan.-Feb.  (boxes),  Mar.-Apr.,  Aug.- 
Oct. 5-7  months 

Balloon  Vine  —  Mar.-Apr.,  after  frost     .     .     .  Rapid  climber 


APPENDIX  B  61 

Balsam  —  Feb. -Mar 4  months 

Bean  (Scarlet  Runner)  —  Apr -May   ....  2-3  months 

Calliopsis  —  Oct.-May 3-4  months 

Chrysanthemum  —  Feb. -Mar 3-5  months 

Clarkia  —  Sept. -No v.,  Feb. -Mar 4  months 

Collinsia  —  Sept. -No v.,  Feb.-Mar 3  months 

Coreopsis  —  Sept.-Nov 8-10  months 

Cosmos  —  Oct. -June 3-4  months 

Dianthus  (Pinks)  —  Sept.-Oct.  (beds)      ...  3  months 

Dianthus  —  Jan.-Mar.  (boxes) 3  months 

Gilliflower  (see  Stock). 

Godetia  —  Dec.-Feb 4  months 

Gypsophila  muralis  (Baby's  Breath)  —  Jan.- 
Mar 3-4  months 

Hyacinth  —  Bulbs,  Sept.-Jan Spring  flowering 

Japanese  Hop  —  Mar.-Apr Rapid  climber 

Larkspur  —  Sept.-Mar 3  months 

Lobelia  (dwarf)  —  Aug.-Oct.,  Mar  .-May  (boxes)  3  months 

Marigold  —  Jan.-Mar 4  months 

Mignonette  —  Sept.-Mar 2-3  months 

Mina  lobatas  (climber)  —  Feb. -Apr 6  months 

Morning  Glory  (climbing)  —  Feb. -Apr.  ...  3  months 

Narcissus  —  Bulbs,  Sept.-Jan Spring  flowering 

Nemophila  (Baby  Blue  Eyes)  —  Feb.-Apr.        .  2-3  months 

Nigella  (Love-in-a-Mist)  —  Sept.-Mar.    ...  3  months 

Pansy  —  Sept.-Oct.  (boxes),  Jan.-Mar.  .     .     .  3-4  months 

Phlox  drummondii  —  Sept.-Mar 3-4  months 

Platystemon  (Cream  Cups)  —  After  first  rains  3  months 

Poppy  —  Sept.-Nov.,  Feb.-Mar 3-4  months 

Salpiglossis  —  Feb.-Apr.,  Sept.-Oct 3  months 

Scabiosa  —  Sept.-Oct.  (boxes),  Feb.-Apr.     .     .  4  months 

Snail  Vine  —  Spring  after  frost 6  months 

Stock,  Ten  Weeks  —  Aug.-Sept.,  Jan.-Mar. 

(boxes) 3  months 

Sweet  Pea  —  Sept.-Feb 4-6  months 

Sweet  Pea  —  Early  varieties,  Aug.-Feb.  .     .     .  3-4  months 

Sweet  Pea  —  Dwarf  varieties,  Sept.-Feb.      .     .  4-6  months 

Zinnia  —  Feb.-Apr „     .     .  3  months 


62  APPENDIX  B 

Perennial  Flowers 

Name  Time  to  plant  How  long  to  grow 

Bellis  (Double  Daisy)  —  Feb.-Apr.,  Aug.,  Sept.  6-8  months 

Columbine  —  Sept.-Oct 9  months 

Canna  —  Seeds,  Feb.-Mar.  (boxes) ;  Apr.     .     .  8-10  months 

Canna  —  Tubers,  spring 2-3  months 

Canterbury  Bells  —  Aug.-Sept.,  Mar.-May      .  12  months 
Carnation  —  Sept.-Oct.  (beds) ;  Nov.-Apr. 

(boxes) 6-12  months 

Centauria  (Dusty  Miller)  —  Mar.-May  (boxes)  Ornamental  plant 

Chrysanthemum  —  Plants,  Apr.-June     .     .     .  5-6  months 

Daisy  —  Sept.-May 3  months 

Dahlia  —  Seeds,  Jan.-Mar.  (boxes) ;   Apr.  (beds)  7-10  months 

Dahlia  —  Roots,  Mar.-May 5  months 

Freesia  —  Seeds,  Feb.-Apr 2  years 

Freesia  —  Bulbs,  Sept.-Nov 4  months 

Forge t-Me-Not  —  Sept.-Nov.,  Mar.-May   .     .  6  months 

Gladiolus  —  Seeds,  Feb.-Apr 2  years 

Gladiolus  —  Bulbs,  Sept.-Dec 3  months 

Foxglove  —  Sept.-Nov.,  Mar.-May    ....  8-10  months 

Goldenrod  —  Seeds,  Jan.-Mar 1  year 

Goldenrod  —  Plants  (division)  —  Nov.-Jan.     .  6  months 

Gypsophila  panieulata  —  Jan.-Mar 4-6  months 

Heliotrope  —  Apr.-May  (boxes) 4-6  months 

Hollyhock  (biennial)  —  Sept.-Oct.,  Mar.-Apr.  12  months 
Marguerite  (see  Chrysanthemum).    J 

Passion  Flower  —  Sept. -Mar Rapid  climber 

Perennial  Pea  —  Sept.-Mar 4-6  months 

Perennial  Phlox  —  Sept.-Nov.,  Mar.-May       .  6-8  months 

Perennial  Poppies  —  Sept.-Nov.,  Mar.-May    .  6-8  months 

Pinks,  China  —  Mar.-Apr 3  months 

Salvia  (Flowering  Sage)  —  Feb.-Mar.  (house), 

Apr.-May 6  months 

Shasta  Daisy  (see  Chrysanthemum). 

Smilax  —  Seeds,  Jan.-Mar.  (boxes)     ....  8-10  months 

Smilax  —  Tubers,  any  time 2-3  months 

Snapdragon  —  Aug.-Oct.,  Mar.-Apr.       ...  3  months 

Sweet  William  —  Aug.-Oct.,  Mar.-May       .     .  2  years 

Tulips  —  Bulbs,  Nov.-Jan Spring  flowering 


APPENDIX  B 


63 


Violet  —  Seed,  Sept.-Mar 3-4  months 

Violet  —  Plants,  any  time. 

Wallflower  —  Jan.-Mar 6-8  months 


Plants  that  will  Thrive  with  Comparatively  Little  Water 


Vegetables 
Name  Time  to  plant 

Corn  (sweet)  —  Mar  .-June,  Sept.-Oct.     (Give 

good  cultivation) 

Eggplant  —  Mar.-Apr.  (boxes)  .  . 
Eggplant  —  May-June  (beds)  .  .  . 
Melons  —  March  to  June  after  frosts 
Peppers  (chillies)  —  Jan.  (boxes) ;  Apr, 
Pumpkin  —  March-June  after  frosts  . 
Squash  —  March-June  after  frosts 


How  long  to  grow 

2-3  months 
3  months 

3  months 
3-4  months 

4  months 
5-6  months 
5-6  months 


Flowers 

(All  annual  except  those  labeled  otherwise) 

Name  Time  to  plant  How  long  to  grow 

Alyssum,  Sweet  —  Oct.-Dec 2-3  months 

Australian  Pea  Vine  —  Mar.-Apr 3-4  months 

Calendula  "Pot  Marigold"  —  Oct.- Apr.      .     .  2-3  months 

Candytuft  —  Oct.-May 3-4  months 

Castor  Bean  (P)  —  Mar  .-June  ......  3  months 

Centaurea  (Corn  Flower)  —  Feb. -May,  Aug.- 

Oct 3  months 

Collinsia  —  Sept.-Mar 2-3  months 

Eschscholtzia  (California  Poppy)  —  Sept.-Mar.  3  months 

Feverfew  (P)  —  Oct.-Dec 6  months 

Flax,  Scarlet  —  Sept.-Oct.,  Feb  .-May      ...  3  months 

Four-o' Clock  —  Sept.-Mar 2-4  months 

Gaillardia  —  Mar  .-May 4  months 

Geranium  (P)  —  Seed,  Sept.-Nov 4-6  months 

Geranium  —  Cuttings,  any  time. 

Gilia  —  Sept.-Nov 3-4  months 

Godetia  —  Oct.-Dec 3  months 

Lavender  (P)  —  Cuttings,  Nov.-Feb.      ...  2  years 


64  APPENDIX  C 

Flowers  (Continued) 
Name  Time  to  grow  How  long  to  grow 

Lippia  repens  (P),  (Lawn  plant)  —  Seeds,  Oct.- 

Feb 6  months 

Lippia  repens  (P)  —  Plants  (rooted  cuttings), 

any  time. 

Lupins  (A  &  P)  —  Oct.-Dec 3  months 

Morning  Glory  (dwarf)  —  Feb -Apr.        .     .     .     2-3  months 

Nasturtium  —  Sept.-Apr 2  months 

Portulaca  —  Feb  .-Apr 2^  months 

Petunia  —  Feb  .-Apr.  (after  frost)        ....     3  months 

Sunflower  —  Any  time 3  months 

Pentstemon  (P)  —  Oct.-Dec 4-6  months 

Plumbago  (P)  —  Plants  any  time Bush  or  climber 

Salvia     (Scarlet     Sage)  —  Apr.-May;     Sept. 

(boxes) ;   Feb.  (house) 4-6  months 

Solanum    jasminoides    (P),    (Potato    Vine)  — 

Plants,  any  time 10-20  feet 

Verbena  (mostly  P)  —  Seeds,  Oct.-Mar.  (Dec- 

Feb.  in  boxes) ;  cuttings,  Sept.-Mar.     .     .     4^5  months 

APPENDIX   C 
Best  Reference  Books 

Although  some  of  the  following  works  have  been  mentioned  in  the 
body  of  this  book,  it  was  thought  best  to  indicate  a  few  of  the  best 
books  for  the  teacher's  reference  shelf.  Unless  otherwise  indicated 
the  publishers  are  The  Macmillan  Company. 

Osterhout.  —  ** Experiments  with  Plants." 

Bailey.  —  ** Manual  of  Gardening." 

Bailey.  —  **  Lessons  with  Plants." 

Weed.  —  ''Farm  Friends  and  Farm  Foes."     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Valentine.  —  "How  to  keep  Hens  for  Profit." 

Lyon.  —  "How  to  keep  Bees  for  Profit." 

King.  — "The  Soil." 

Lipman.  —  "Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Country  Life." 

Stevens,    Butler.  —  "A   Practical   Arithmetic."     Scribners. 

Hoag.  —  "Health  and  Index  of  Children."  Whitaker-Ray-Wig- 
gin  Co. 


APPENDIX   D  65 

APPENDIX  D 
Reference  Lists  of  Bulletins  and  Circulars 

(1)  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Apply  to  Secre- 
tary of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C.,  for  List  of  Free  Publications 
of  the  Department.  Also  ask  to  have  your  name  placed  upon  the 
mailing  list  for  the  ** Monthly  List  of  Publications." 

(2)  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Berkeley,  California.  Apply 
to  the  Director  for  the  most  recent  bulletin.  On  the  last  page  will 
be  given  a  complete  list  of  all  available  bulletins  and  circulars  issued 
by  the  station. 


T 


HE  following  pages  contain  advertisements  of  Macmil- 
lan  books  by  the  same  author  or  on  kindred  subjects 


SOILS 

THEIR     FORMATION,      PROPERTIES,      COMPOSITION,      AND      RELATIONS     TO 
CLIMATE  AND   PLANT  GROWTH   IN   THE   HUMID  AND  ARID   REGIONS 

By  E.  W.  Hilgard,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

Professor  of  Agriculture  in  the  University  of  California,  and  Director  of 
the  California  Agriculture  Experiment  Station. 

Clothy  8vo,  3^3  pages i  $4.00  net 

This  work,  originally  designed  as  a  text-book  for  the  writer's  University 
classes  in  agriculture,  has  been  considerably  expanded  in  response  to  a  wide- 
spread demand  for  a  book  which  should  present  the  principles  and  practices 
of  agriculture,  not  only  in  connection  with  the  humid  regions  as  has  mostly 
been  done  in  existing  works,  but  equally  so  in  respect  to  the  arid  regions. 
The  important  and  often  critical  differences  between  the  soil  conditions  of 
the  two  regions  and  of  the  corresponding  differences  in  practice  are  only 
casually  referred  to  in  most  existing  works.  This  painful  gap  in  agricultural 
literature  Dr.  Hilgard  fills  upon  the  basis  of  a  prolonged  personal  experience 
both  in  the  humid  and  arid  regions  of  the  United  States. 

In  order  to  adapt  the  volume  to  popular  as  well  as  professional  readers  the 
text  is  printed  in  two  different  kinds  of  type.  The  larger  contains  the  matter 
which  is  essential  to  any  intelligent  student  of  the  subject  and  which  will  be 
found  interesting  by  any  farmer  or  man  with  a  country  place.  In  the  smaller 
type  is  contained  the  more  strictly  scientific  and  technical  matter. 

"  Dr.  Hilgard,  by  reason  of  his  special  and  long-continued  attention  to  the 
chemistry  of  soils,  and  his  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  subject,  was  pecu- 
liarly well  fitted  for  the  task  to  which  he  applied  himself  in  the  preparation 
of  the  present  work.  It  is  concise  and  yet  exhaustive.  Every  phase  of  the 
topic  is  thoroughly  treated.  Soils  are  discussed  with  relation  to  their  origin, 
properties,  and  composition  as  well  as  to  the  climate  and  their  adaptability  to 
various  crops  and  plant  growths;  also  with  regard  to  irrigation  and  fertiliza- 
tion. A  vast  amount  of  scientific  knowledge  has  been  compressed  into  the 
book,  set  forth  in  lucid  style  so  as  to  be  readily  understood  by  any  intelligent 
reader.  Technical  terms  are  as  far  as  possible  avoided  and  the  volume  is 
thoroughly  practical.  No  farmer  or  fruit  grower  can  afford  to  be  without  the 
information  contained  in  Soils.  And  while  the  work  is  necessarily  expensive, 
it  is  well  worth  the  price."  —  The  Evening  Bee,  Sacramento. 


PUBLISHED    BY 

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EXPERIMENTS    WITH    PLANTS 
By  W.  J.  V.  Osterhout,  Ph.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Botany  in  the  University  of  California. 

Illustrated.      Clothe  127710^  $i'^S  net 

This  book  contains  a  great  variety  of  experiments,  —  over  two  hundred  and 
fifty  in  number,  —  all  of  them  simple  and  easily  performed  by  the  use  of  uten- 
sils to  be  found  in  most  homes — or  which  can  be  procured  in  the  ordinary 
grocery  or  drug  store,  and  the  directions  for  the  conduct  of  each  experiment 
are  so  simple  and  clear  that  they  will  tempt  the  young  student  on  the  farm  to 
try  for  their  solution.  These  experiments  have  all  been  chosen  because  of  their 
practical  character,  and  in  all  cases  the  application  of  the  experiment  is  made 
to  farming,  gardening,  hygiene,  sanitation,  and  to  everyday  life  generally. 
The  experiments  are  so  arranged  that  each  one  leads  naturally  to  the  one 
next  following,  and  the  general  order  of  topics  is  the  one  suggested  by  observ- 
ing the  growth  of  a  plant.  Especial  attention  is  given  in  the  book  to  certain 
important  topics  hitherto  neglected;  for  example,  soil,  bacteria,  diseases  of 
plants,  and  plant-breeding.  The  central  idea  throughout  the  work  has  been 
to  select  significant  experiments;  that  is,  those  which  illustrate  fundamental 
laws  and  far-reaching  principles,  and  then  to  simplify  the  experiment  to  the 
utmost. 

The  illustrations,  which  number  over  two  hundred  and  fifty,  are  all  original 
and  interesting. 

"Numerous  questions  which  young  people  ask  about  plants  are  best  an- 
swered by  themselves,  according  to  Professor  W.  J.  V.  Osterhout  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  California.  To  put  them  in  the  way  of  doing  this  so  far  as  possible 
is  the  purpose,  the  author  states,  of  a  comprehensive  and  well-written  book 
which  he  has  just  given  the  public.  The  book  is  particularly  well  adapted  to 
the  classroom,  but  the  nature  of  its  contents  makes  it  of  interest  to  everybody 
who  is  interested  in  a  detailed  study  of  plant  life.  .  .  .  The  book  is  so  pro- 
fusely illustrated  and  the  text  of  such  an  interesting  nature  that  it  is  an  educa- 
tion in  the  development  and  behavior  of  plants,  merely  to  read  through  the 
volume."  —  Suburban  Life. 


PUBLISHED    BY 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

64-66  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 


BOOKS   ON  AGRICULTURE 


On  Selection  of  Land,  etc. 

Thomas  F.  Hunt's  How  to  Choose  a  Farm $'^75  net 

E.  W.  Hilgard's  Soils :  Their  Formation  and  Relation  to  Cli- 
mate and  Plant  Growth 4  oo  net 

Isaac  P.  Roberts'  The  Farmstead i  50  net 

On  Tillage,  etc. 

F.  H.  King's  The  Soil i  50  net 

Isaac  P.  Roberts' The  Fertility  of  the  Land i  50  net 

Elwood  Mead's  Irrigation  Institutions i  25  net 

F.  H.  King's  Irrigation  and  Drainage i  50  net 

William  E.  Smythe's  The  Conquest  of  Arid  America  .        .         .  i  50  net 

Edward  B.  Voorhees'  Fertilizers i  25  net 

Edward  B.  Voorhees'  Forage  Crops i  50  net 

H.  Snyder's  Chemistry  of  Plant  and  Animal  Life          .        .         .  i  25  net 

H.  Snyder's  Soil  and  Fertilizers.     Third  edition   .        .        .         .  i  25  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Principles  of  Agriculture i  25  net 

W.  C.  Welborn's  Elements  of  Agriculture,  Southern  and  West- 
ern           75  net 

J.  F.  Duggar's  Agriculture  for  Southern  Schools  ....  75  net 

G.  F.  Warren's  Elements  of  Agriculture i  10  net 

T.  L.  Lyon  and  E.  O.  Fippen's  The  Principles  of  Soil  Manage- 
ment        I  75  net 

Hilgard  &  Osterhout's  Agriculture  for  Schools  on  the  Pacific 

Slope I  00  net 

J.  A.  Widtsoe's  Dry  Farming i  50  net 

On  Garden-Making 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Manual  of  Gardening 2  00  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Vegetable-Gardening i  50  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Horticulturist's  Rule  Book 75  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Forcing  Book i  25  net 

A.  French's  Book  of  Vegetables i  75  net 

On  Fruit-Growing,  etc. 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Nursery  Book I  50  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Fruit-Growing i  50  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  Pruning  Book i  50  net 

F.  W.  Card's  Bush  Fruits i  50  net 

J.  T.  Bealby's  Fruit  Ranching  in  British  Columbia       ,        .        .  i  50  net 

On  the  Care  of  Live  Stock 


D.  E.  Lyon's  How  to  Keep  Bees  for  Profit    . 

Nelson  S.  Mayo's  The  Diseases  of  Animals 

W.  H.  Jordan's  The  Feeding  of  Animals 

I.  P.  Roberts'  The  Horse        .... 

George  C.  Watson's  Farm  Poultry 

C.  S.  Valentine's  How  to  Keep  Hens  for  Profit 

O.  Kellner's  The  Scientific  Feeding  of  Animals  (trans, 


I  50  net 
I  50  net 
I  50  net 
I  25  net 
I  25  net 
I  50  net 
I  90  net 


M.  H.  Reynolds'  Veterinary  Studies  for  Agricultural  Students    .     i  75  net 


BOOKS    ON    AGKICVLTUKE  — Continued 


On  Dairy  Work 

Henry  H.  Wing's  Milk  and  its  Products jfJi  50  net 

C.  M.  Aikman's  Milk i  25  net 

Harry  Snyder's  Dairy  Chemistry i  00  net 

W.  D.  Frost's  Laboratory  Guide  in  Elementary  Bacteriology       .  i  60  net 

I.  P.  Sheldon's  The  Farm  and  the  Dairy i  00  net 

Chr.  Barthel's  Methods  Used  in  the  Examination  of  Milk  and 
Dairy  Products i  90  net 

On  Plant  Diseases,  etc. 

George  Massee's  Plant  Diseases i  60  net 

I  25  net 
I  60  net 
4  50  net 


J.  G.  Lipman's  Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Country  Life 
E.  C.  Lodeman's  The  Spraying  of  Plants 
H.  M.  Ward's  Disease  in  Plants  (English)    . 
A.  S.  Packard's  A  Text-book  on  Entomology 


On  Production  of  New  Plants 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Plant-Breeding i  25  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  Survival  of  the  Unlike 2  00  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  Evolution  of  Our  Native  Fruits       .        .        .  2  00  net 

W.  S.  Harwood's  New  Creations  in  Plant  Life      .        .        .         .  i  75  net 

On  Economics  and  Organization 

J.  McLennan 's  Manual  of  Practical  Farming        .         .        .        .  i  50  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  State  and  the  Farmer i  25  net 

Henry  C.  Taylor's  Agricultural  Economics i  25  net 

L  P.  Roberts'  The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook           .        .         .  i  25  net 

George  T.  Fairchild's  Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare         .                 .  i  25  net 

S.  E.  Sparling's  Business  Organization i  25  net 

In  the  Citizen's  Library.     Includes  a  chapter  on  Farming 

Kate  V.  St.  Maur's  A  Self-supporting  Home          .        .         .        .  i  75  net 

Kate  V.  St.  Maur's  The  Earth's  Bounty i  75  net 

G.  F.  Warren  and  K.  C.  Livermore's  Exercises  in  Farm  Man- 
agement           80  net 

H.  N.  Ogden's  Rural  Hygiene i  50  net 

On  Everything  Agricultural 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture: 
Vol.  I.   Farms,  Climates,  and  Soils. 
Vol.  II.   Farm  Crops. 
Vol.  III.   Farm  Animals. 
Vol.  IV.   The  Farm  and  the  Community. 

To  be  complete  in  four  royal  8vo  volumes,  with  over  2000  illustrations. 
Price  of  sets :  cloth,  ^20  net ;  half-morocco,  $32  net. 


For  further  information  as  to  any  of  the  above^ 
address  the  publishers 


PUBLISHED    BY 

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ELEMENTS  OF   AGRICULTURE 

BY 

G.  F.  WARREN 

Professor  of  Farm  Management  and  Farm  Crops,  New  York  State  College 
of  Agriculture,  at  Cornell  University 

Cloih^  j2mo^  price  $i,io  net 

This  book  is  designed  for  use  in  high  schools,  academies,  and 
normal  schools,  and  in  colleges  when  only  a  short  time  can  be 
given  to  the  subject.  It  is  also  useful  to  the  farmer  or  general 
reader  who  desires  a  brief  survey  of  agriculture. 

The  purpose  of  the  book  is  to  make  the  teaching  of  agricul- 
ture in  the  existing  high  schools  comparable  in  extent  and 
thoroughness  with  the  teaching  of  physics,  mathematics,  history, 
and  literature.  In  fact,  the  chemistry  and  botany  should,  if 
possible,  precede  the  agriculture  as  given  in  this  book  ;  and  the 
pupil  will  be  all  the  better  prepared  for  the  subject  if  he  comes  to 
it  with  considerable  other  high-school  training,  for  much  of  the 
value  of  the  work  will  be  conditioned  on  the  student's  maturity 
and  his  experience  with  life.  The  subject  is  not  one  that  can 
be  memorized,  or  even  acquired  in  the  ordinary  method  of 
school  study ;  it  must  relate  itself  to  the  actual  work  and 
business  of  the  community  in  such  a  way  as  will  develop  the 
student's  judgment  of  conditions  and  affairs. 

IN  PREPARATION 
BY   THE  SAME  AUTHOR  A  NEW  BOOK  ON 

FARM  MANAGEMENT 

to  be  included  in  the  well-known  Rural  Science  Series,  under  the  general 
editorship  of  Prof.  L.  H.  Bailey. 


THE    MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

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